Learning and Memory

Learning and Memory

According to Wickens (2005), "there is no learning without memory, although some memories can be innate such as instincts and basic reflexes" (p. 260). The process of learning is intricately interwoven with memory in a process that is constantly updated and modified throughout the lifespan (Wickens, 2005). Contemporary knowledge has enabled the understanding that human neural processes continue into old age, as long as there is active participation in thought processes (Wickens, 2005). The complex nature of the neural process is not easily understood, but by the continued study of all aspects of learning and memory, a greater understanding promotes new information (Wickens, 2005). New information provides a wider means of diagnosing and treating the dysfunction that interferes with vital memory and its ability to amass new information while storing the old (Wickens, 2005).

Neuroanatomy and Neural Processes of Learning and Memory

The neuroanatomy involved in learning and memory makes simplistic explanations difficult because of its complex nature and the vast amount of cells and structures involved (Wickens, 2005). Both processes have significant dependence on the chemical and electrical changes in the neuron synapse for learning and memory to transpire (Wickens, 2005). The cerebral cortex is our memory storage and the hippocampus, which is part of the limbic system and plays a key role in storage and consolidation of long and short-term memory (Wickens, 2005). The cerebellum plays a role in acquiring procedural memory and motor learning such as driving a car or riding a bicycle (Wickens, 2005). The amygdala helps with transferring information from working memory into long-term memories and encodes emotional information into memories. The basal ganglia play a role in learning, memory, and unconscious memory processes that includes motor skills and implicit memory. Research has shown that part of the basal ganglia helps in the acquisition of stimulus-response habits and other problem solving.

Hebb described changes in the synapse that accounted for the consolidation of memory (Wickens, 2005). He described reverberations in the synapse that resulted in structural changes in the neurons that made up cell assemblies. He found that the synapses were strengthened as a result of learning and referred to this as the Hebbian synapse. Hebb proposed that the continued reverberation that causes the structural changes (long-term potentiation) explained how neurons encoded and stored memory (Wickens, 2005). Although not fully understood, recent studies have shown that the process of long-term potentiation begins with the release of glutamate from neurons that cross the synaptic gap and binds to hippocampal receptors. The receptors are activated and a series of chemical reactions take place wherein changes in the neurons are made (Wickens, 2005).

The Relationship between Learning and Memory

According to Wickens (2005), learning is the acquisition of new information, and memory is the capacity for storing and retrieving the information. Memory is a composite of our experiences and without learning and memory, there would be no coherent thought processes, language, or an ability to perceive our environment (Wickens, 2005). Learning occurs when new information is transferred into memory (Cherry, n.d.) Memory refers to the process by which people acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information and allows us to learn and interact (Cherry, n.d.). In the memory process, we encode information, store it for later use, and then retrieve it for future reference (Cherry, n.d.). Both learning and memory are influenced by experiences and other factors including environment, cognitive skills, culture, biological state, and social development (Cherry, n.d.). These factors also affect how people remember and store memories (Cherry, n.d.). Sensory information is received and is held in short-term memory for 20-30 seconds, after which information must be stored in long-term memory, or it is lost (Cherry, n.d.).

According to Bridge, Chiao, and Paller (2010), emotion is a significant factor that influences memory. In Emotional Context at Learning Systematically Biases Memory for Facial Information, the authors address how moods are interpreted and influence the processing and memory retention of specific stimuli (Bridge et al., 2010). Bridge et al., (2010) found a learning advantage associated with the recognition of happy faces compared with learning recognition of faces with apparent sad dispositions. In this and several experiments, the authors have broadened the perception of how memory has a basis in and is biased by several outside factors (Bridge et al., 2010). Regardless of the influence of these factors, memory systems must function for learning to occur, as learning implicates and necessitates memory (Wickens, 2005).

The importance of Lifelong Learning and Brain Stimulation

Engaging in lifelong learning and brain stimulation are essential for mental health in aging (Wickens, 2005). According to Wickens (2005), a study of nuns' brains that showed the nuns who were most articulate, wrote more complex sentences, and expressed the greatest number of ideas had a later onset of dementia (Wickens, 2005). New research on neurogenesis, indicates that neural pathways can be formed, even in later life (Wickens, 2005). According to Salthouse (2006), several studies have shown a positive relationship between activity levels and cognitive functioning. After studying the lifestyles and activities of older adults over the course of six years the results reflected activity was a significant predictor of several cognitive actions (Newson & Kemps, 2005).

Robert S. Wilson at the Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center in Chicago, found new ways by which to reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease in the aging population (Fernandez, 2007). His study found those who were cognitively active as they aged were 2.6 times less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer's disease than those inactive in old age (Fernandez, 2007). In addition, the study found that using more cognitive skills during old age was associated with reduced risk of cognitive impairment and a less rapid decline in the normal aging process (Fernandez, 2007). In summation, Wilson found that stress management and brain exercise are critical in combination with nutrition and physical exercise to maintain cognitive function and a better quality of life and sense of well being (Fernandez, 2007).

Conclusion

Learning and memory are inextricably intertwined, and without the combined processes that contribute to its acquisition and storage, there would be no coherent thought processes, language, or ability to perceive our environment (Wickens, 2005). Through the complex neural processes that transpire in the equally complex structures of the brain, humans manage to store immeasurable amounts of information for indefinite amounts of time. In their reciprocal relationship, one implicates and necessitates the other (Wickens, 2005). Although easy to take for granted, the ability to learn and remember is an integral part of the human ability to maintain a social network, build upon prior knowledge, and interact with the physical environment (Wickens, 2005). The life giving properties of learning and memory maintain quality of life, happiness, and a richer sense of well being throughout life into old age. As Wickens (2005) poignantly summed, "In short, without learning and memory we would be mentally and psychologically dead" (p. 228).

References

Bridge, D. J., Chiao, J. Y., & Paller, K. A. (2010). Emotional context at learning systematically biases memory for facial information. Memory and Cognition, 38(2), 125. Retrieved November 2, 2010, from ABI/INFORM.

Calabrese, V., Scapagnini, G., Stella, A. G., Bates, T. E., & Clark, J. B. (2001). Mitochondrial Involvement in Brain Function and Dysfunction: Relevance to Aging, Neurodegenerative Disorders and Longevity. Neurochemical Research, 26(6), 739-764. doi: 10.1023/A:1010955807739

Cherry, K. (n.d.). Memory - Overview of Memory. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Retrieved November 02, 2010, from http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/a/memory.htm

Fernandez, A. (2007). Brain Exercise and Lifelong Learning for Alzheimer's Prevention Alzheimer Disease. Article Directory - Find, Search, Reprint & Submit Articles for Free. Retrieved November 02, 2010, from http://www.articlesphere.com/Article/Brain- Exercise-and-Lifelong-Learning-for-Alzheimer-s-Prevention/94361

Newson, R. S., & Kemps, E. B. (2005). General Lifestyle Activities as a Predictor of Current Cognition and Cognitive Change in Older Adults: A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Examination. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 60(3), 113-120. doi: 10.1093/geronb/60.3.P113

Salthouse, T. A. (2006). Mental Exercise and Mental Aging. Evaluating the Validity of the "Use It or Lose It" Hypothesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(1), 68-87. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00005.x

Wickens A.P. (2005). Foundations of Biopsychology (2nd ed.). New York: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Flashbulb Memories

Flashbulb memories are aptly named because it's as if the mind takes a richly detailed picture of circumstances in which news was learned. According to Willingham, flashbulb memories are characterized by accuracy, completeness, and an immunity to being forgotten. Research suggests a unique mental process accounts for this type of memory in that they occur only during times of extreme emotional duress or shock. According to Kihlstrom (n.d.), the general conclusion of studies on this type of memory is that flashbulb memories do not contain more accurate representations of the event in question. The unique quality of these memories is not related to emotional arousal, but the more mundane effect of going over the experience with others and in one's own mind repeatedly (Kihlstrom, n.d.). According to Willingham, people tend to think about flashbulb memories differently. Whereas people acknowledge the loss of accuracy of daily memories, they believe that they maintain the accuracy of flashbulb memories, and its accuracy neither decreases over time nor does the emotional effects associated with the memory of the event (Willingham, 2007).

Kihlstrom (n.d.) suggests that flashbulb memories may serve as a significant function in the human personality, and the sharing of these memories may serve as a socially bonding activity, and a reference point in one's personal history. Neisser and Hyman (2000) suggests "we remember the details of a flashbulb occasion because those details are the links between our own histories and history" (p. 73).

References:

Kihlstrom, J. F. (n.d.). Flashbulb Memories. Socrates.berkeley.edu. Retrieved December 01, 2010, from http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~kihlstrm/flashbulb.htm

Neisser, U., & Hyman, I. E. (2000). Memory observed: remembering in natural contexts. New York, NY: Worth.

Willingham, D. (2007). Cognition: The Thinking Animal, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Cognitive Pychology of use in other Disciplines?

It is important that cognitive psychology uses the physical structure of the brain to define the function associated with it, rather than simply studying the brain (Willingham, 2007). When we study behavior associated with specific brain functions, it gives us a more clearly defined relationship between the two, for example how different brain structures function in concert to produce specific behavior (Willingham, 2007). According to Willingham (2007), exclusive study of the brain will not promote the examination of the exchange and interaction of brain structures, although studying the brain, its interactions with other structures, and its implications in behavior, will.

Willingham (2007), addresses the practical importance of cognitive psychology. Consider, for example, Parkinson's disease, for which deep brain stimulation is often used to correct tremors (Wickens, 2005). Without understanding which part of the brain is implicated in producing tremors, neuroscientists would not have been able to determine which part of the brain required stimulation to reduce the tremors. In the case of deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's, the cognitive description of how the brain works enabled the surgical design for the reduction of the tremors.

Certainly in business, memory and motivation are continually studied, as both are implicated in more successful employees and consequently in a more successful business (Deckers, 2010). A universal problem in business is maintaining motivation in employees in every job description. Cognitive psychology could offer a deeper understanding of how the brain functions, what motivates specific behavior, and optimal environments for motivation.

References:

Deckers, L. (2010). Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental. 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Wickens , A.P. (2005). Foundations of Biopsychology (2nd ed.). New York: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Willingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

The Development of Cognitive Psychology

Although I think the information age and the computer metaphor played a significant role in the development of cognitive psychology, and the fall of behaviorism created an opportunity for new ways of thinking, it was neuroscience and artificial intelligence that lead to a clearer understanding of how the brain functioned and its relationship to behavior. According to Willingham (2007), neuroscientists became better able to provide tangible evidence as to how the mind could be studied in a scientific manner. (Behaviorists believed that only studying behavior was scientific.) A more definitive link between brain structure and function became apparent from examining brain-damaged individuals and associating the damaged area to the specific cognitive problem exhibited by the individual (Willingham 2007).

For example, the famous patient H.M. was studied after surgery to lessen his epileptic seizure activity, caused damage to areas that enable new memories (Willingham, 2007). Information from the studies of H.M.'s memory helped science develop theories as to how and by which brain structures memory works. H.M.'s long-term memory was intact, although he could not create new memories. Scientists could understand which structures were and were not essential in the type of memory still intact in H.M. Willingham (2007) makes the point that it was important to be able to use abstract constructs, such as H.M.'s intact (or primary) memory, to determine a link between structures and memory capabilities. Despite the fact that his hippocampus and other structures were damaged in the surgery, his primary and long-term memory still worked, so this knowledge illuminated which structures did play a possible role in the memory that no longer functioned in H.M.

Behaviorists were not fond of using abstract ideas such as memory because they couldn't be observed, but human studies, such as the case of H.M., helped to strengthen the significance of immeasurable functions and define stronger links between brain structures and their functions.

Reference:

Willingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Defining Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is often compared to behaviorism because of the sharp contrast of the perspectives (Willingham, 2007). Whereas behaviorism fails to address mental processes, cognitive psychology aims to create a coherent description of these processes characteristic of humankind. Unlike other perspectives in psychology, cognitive psychology's reputation is based in experimentation and the scientific method (Willingham, 2007). Its main goal is to explain how humans transform input into thoughts and actions by the complex and often-mysterious process of cognition (Eysenck, 2004, Willingham, 2007)).

Cognitive psychology addresses the unobservable nature of the human psyche and uses abstract constructs to produce observable behavior resulting in a more accurate understanding of these processes (Willingham, 2007). This branch of psychology came to life during the fall of behaviorism with the help of new technology, the application of abstract concepts, and neuroscience (Willingham, 2007). The cognitive approach has permeated contemporary psychology with its scientific representation of the complex human psyche, and has provided the opportunity to apply this knowledge in the treatment of human disease and dysfunction (Eysenck, 2004).

Defining Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Psychology is a psychological perspective that addresses mental processes such as thinking, problem solving, perceiving, remembering, believing, and speaking, and seeks to identify behavior by characteristics other than its obvious properties ("Cognitive psychology," 2009). It includes mental representations and the use of abstract constructs to find relationships between brain structures and their functions (Willingham, 2007). Unlike behaviorism, cognitive psychology acknowledges internal states, although rejects introspective techniques employed by other perspectives (Cherry, n.d.).

Key Milestones in the Development of Cognitive Psychology

The Crumbling of Behaviorism

Several problems have been implicated in the fall of behaviorism, especially in accounting for reasoning in language and memory (Willingham, 2007). Although entrenched in a scientific method exclusively designed for observing overt behavior, most behaviorist observations were on animals, which many thought could not possibly explain human language and other abilities (Willingham, 2007). Behaviorism could not and would not account for internal mental processes and intrinsic drives such as those addressed by Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis or Wundt's and James' introspection (Wickens, 2005). Ultimately, psychology had to embrace all aspects of the human psyche, which definitively included that which transpires within the individual, yet remains unseen. Behaviorism could not accommodate this need (Willingham, 2007).

The Computer Metaphor and Information Processing

The metaphor that bound information processing to the human mind was a powerful force in the beginnings of cognitive psychology. This metaphor became a composite of characteristics shared by humankind and machine (Willingham, 2007). These similarities included the way humans process information, the nature of human language processes and the transfer of information into memory (Willingham, 2007). The similarities between the two systems gave rise to new ways of thinking somewhat abstract and more complex than the prevalent behaviorist views of the time (Willingham, 2007). Whereas Descartes likened the mind to mechanistic garden statues, and behaviorists observed the mechanistic tendencies toward predictable human behavior, cognitivists began thinking of the mind as a computer (Willingham, 2007). Although the analogy was not complete in all of its explanations, it did promote further study along these lines.

Abstract Constructs of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence became far more sophisticated with programs that influenced contemporary thoughts on logic and behavior and supported the idea that abstract constructs could be useful in the scientific process (Willingham, 2007). Computers were being programmed to think and solve problems as did humans, and these programs used abstract strategies in their programming (Willingham, 2007). Recall, behaviorists were not fond of unobservable phenomena, and any observation other than the direct measurement of overt behavior was considered unscientific (Willingham, 2007). Artificial intelligence offered a glimpse into how we can infer the existence of unobservable processes based on the product of behavior.

Neuroscience

Neuroscientists became better equipped to study the mind in a scientific manner by using abstract constructs to piece together definitive links between brain structure and function (Willingham, 2007). Behaviorists adamantly believed that only studying behavior was scientific but neuroscientists observed brain-damaged individuals and associated damaged areas to specific observable cognitive problems, which helped them further define functions (Cacioppo, 2004, Willingham, 2007). Observations, such as that of the famous patient H.M., provided a more accurate assumption of the relationship between brain structures and their functions (Wickens, 2005). Cognitive psychology uses the technique of localization to identify areas of the brain that enable specific functions (Willingham, 2007).

Importance of Behavioral Observation in Cognitive Psychology

Behavioral observation enables cognitive psychologists to evaluate theories and inferences and test their predictions about behavior (Willingham, 2007). Because there is no way to observe mental processes directly, cognitive psychologists infer their existence based on behavior and its observation (Willingham, 2007). According to Willingham (2007), the complexities of this undertaking include designating how observable manipulations affect the unobservable abstract concepts of the theory. These behavior-observing experiments help cognitivists evaluate whether the inferences and predictions are legitimate and a true relationship exists between the abstract concept and the variables (Cherry, n.d.). Willingham (2007) states that it is essential in cognitive psychology to use unobservable abstract constructs and determine how they affect observable behavior. Three types of behavioral research serve cognitive psychology including descriptive, relational, and experimental research (Willingham, 2007). These methods describe, find relational factors, and experiment with variables and observation to provide valid foundations for psychological theories (Willingham, 2007).

Conclusion

Traditional wisdom says only by embracing each of the elephant's parts: his trunk, ears, tail, torso, and legs can one gain clear insight into the whole elephant. Similarly, cognitive psychology plays a significant role in understanding and treating the human psyche in both its observable and unconcealed behaviors and its often ambiguous and sometimes mysterious functioning (Cacioppo, 2002). Whereas behaviorism could neither explain nor define the entirety of the human brain, cognitive psychology addresses and provides perspective on the human psyche complete with its internal drives and processes (Willingham, 2007). With its reputable scientific methods, cognitive psychology has found ways to make the traditionally unobservable observable (Willingham, 2007).

References

Cacioppo, J. (2002). Social neuroscience: Understanding the pieces fosters understanding the whole and vice versa. American Psychologist. 57(11). 819-831. Retrieved November 18, 2010. EBSCOhost.

Cherry, B. K. (n.d.). What Is Cognitive Psychology? Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Retrieved November 18, 2010, from http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/cogpsych.htm

Cognitive psychology. (2009). In The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/penguinpsyc/cognitive_psychology

Eysenck, M. W. (2004). Applied cognitive psychology: Implications of cognitive psychology for clinical psychology and psychotherapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60(4), 393-404. Retrieved November 18, 2010, from EBSCOhost.

Wickens, A. (2005). Foundations of Biopsychology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice- Hall.

Willingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Stress and the Human Body

Evidence suggests a definitive relationship between stress, the immune system and disease (Deckers, 2010). Stress may contribute to an individual's susceptibility to acute diseases such as the common cold and other chronic conditions such as cancer and heart disease. According to Deckers (2010), "in addition to colds, stressors have been implicated in the onset of a variety of infections, such as hepatitis, upper respiratory infection, herpes, and mononucleosis" (p. 170).

Stress affects the nervous and other systems which can affect the immune response and make the individual more susceptible to opportunistic microorganisms by affecting cell types and their natural response to pathogens (Deckers, 2010).  Stress also affects and encourages inappropriate behavior which may also affect the immune system. Excess of drinking, smoking, and sleep deficiency have an eventual effect on the nervous system as well (Deckers, 2010).

Research shows that although severe challenges raised individual's level of depression and other negative physical symptoms, social support and other resources mitigated the negative symptoms. Individuals who had other needs met, such as social and esteem needs, suffered far less from symptoms of stress (Deckers, 2010).

Deckers (2010) claims stress can be managed by making lemonade out of life's lemons. Although overly simplistic, individuals have a set of moderator variables - characteristics of the individual that modify the stress experienced by the situation and makes the individual more or less susceptible to stress.  Traditional wisdom tells us that proper care that includes maintaining a healthy diet, getting enough good quality sleep, and maintaining a social support network will help keep us healthy. It certainly gives new meaning to the old wisdom that tells us - don't worry, be happy!

Deckers, L. (2010). Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and Environmental (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon

The Structure and Function of the Frontal Lobe

The Structure and Function of the Frontal Lobe

In collaboration with C. Bernard, A. Smith, & D. Whiteside

The frontal lobe has been referred to as the emotional control center and the residing place of human personality (Levin et al., 1987). Its location at the front of the head creates a definitive vulnerability and studies have shown that it is the most common area of brain injury (Levin et al., 1987). Damage to this area can cause a wide variety of incapacitating symptoms as it plays a significant role in movement, critical thinking and problem solving, memory, language, judgment, impulse control, and the complex and uniquely human accountability to appropriate social behavior (Wickens, 2005). Perhaps the most severe loss from damage to the frontal lobes is the personally defining personality characteristics that account for the exclusively human quality of higher cognitive functions that seem to accompany social interaction (Bird, Castelli, Malik, Frith, & Husain, 2004).

A Brief Description of the Frontal Lobe

The frontal lobe is at the front of the cerebral hemispheres, in front of the parietal lobes, and above the temporal lobes, and behind the forehead (Wickens, 2005). There are two frontal lobes, one on the left and one on the right (Wickens, 2005). The right lobe is in general control of language, whereas the left (generally) controls nonverbal activities (Wickens, 2005). Damage to or dysfunction in the frontal lobe can result in radically inappropriate emotional responses and an inability to function in an appropriate and socially acceptable manner (Stuss, Gow, & Hetherington, 1992). Residing inside are many of the neurons sensitive to dopamine, which are associated with feelings of reward, long-term and emotional memory, attention, planning, and motivation (Bird, et al., 2004). The frontal lobes also play an important part in retaining some types of longer-term memories, such as raw emotionally-charged ones communicated from the limbic system (Bird et al., 2004) The frontal lobes translate and modify these raw emotional memories into socially acceptable ones that comply with the moral parameters of normal social rules and behavior (Bird et al., 2004).

Behavioral and Functional Changes from the Damaged Frontal Lobe

Damage to the frontal lobes may cause indecisiveness, apathy, and trouble with focusing and initiating actions (Shammi & Stuss, 1999). Because the frontal lobes are responsible for maintaining homeostasis of the emotions, damage may cause impulsive behavior, mood swings, excessive agitation, irritability, volatile explosive behavior, and survivors are highly vulnerable to substance abuse (Stuss et al., 1992). They may be unconcerned with social demands, and display indifference, depression, incontinence, restlessness, euphoria, chaotic thinking and lack of emotional control (Stuss et al., 1992). Their inability to understand some of the basic concepts intrinsic to human communication leave many individuals with these injuries completely unable to relate to others and withdraw from society (Stuss et al., 1992).

Rationale for Predicted Changes or Deficit

A common effect of frontal damage is radical changes in social behavior and personality, especially when both lobes are injured ("Dysfunction by Location: Brain Dysfunction: Merck Manual Home Edition," n.d.). The frontal lobe maintains the control of social behavior and the ability to understand and adhere to social norms (Stuss et al., 1992). After damage is sustained by the frontal lobe, the radical changes and wild fluctuations in personality are caused by the lack of control over these same social issues (Stuss et al., 1992). Appropriate inhibition and disturbances in reflective self-awareness are severely distorted or nonexistent (Stuss et al., 1992). Without the ability to process the rules of common social norms, behavior can range from excessive argumentation, to passivity and vulgarity (Stuss, et al., 1992). In essence, after sustaining damage to the frontal lobe, individuals do not have the capability to determine social appropriateness and response, nor is their capacity to regard the consequences of behavior intact ("Dysfunction by Location: Brain Dysfunction: Merck Manual Home Edition," n.d.).

An interesting feature of frontal lobe damage is the inability to understand or appreciate humor (Shammi & Stuss, 1999). Through studies, it is evident that the frontal lobe is critical in higher cognitive functions such as humor, emotions, and the definitive characteristics of individual personality (Shammi & Stuss, 1999). This brain structure takes raw information, integrates, and translates it according to human definition and social rules (Shammi & Stuss, 1999). A recent focus of research is the ability of humans to attribute mental states to others, referred to as mentalizing, and is vital for the ability and comprehension of human social interaction (Bird, et al., 2004). This mental ability resides in the frontal lobe and gives validity and reason to the social incapacity sustained with injury to this area (Bird, et al., 2004). Embracing the basic social and other functions of this brain part, it is evident that social inclusion and the ability to function within the acceptable parameters of the communal nature of humankind is radically disrupted (Stuss et al., 1992).

Treatments and Future Research

Researchers have discovered some tests that determine the extent of injury to the frontal lobe, and focus on specific areas of cognitive development (Center for Neuro Skills, 2010). The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test focuses on response and inhibition; The Tapping Test on motor skills; and The Toke Test addresses language skills (Center for Neuro Skills, 2010). Treatments include administering the drug Ritalin as a means to stimulate the frontal lobe and increase the ability to regulate and control impulsive and inappropriate behavior (Experimental Treatment for Frontal Lobe Injuries, n.d.). Another treatment which has been explored is the drug Sinemet, which is currently used to treat Parkinson’s disease (Experimental Treatment for Frontal Lobe Injuries, n.d.). Research studies show that within 13 days of the drug's administration, there are signs of improvement in the frontal lobe injury (Experimental Treatment for Frontal Lobe Injuries, n.d.). Also promising is the use of neural progenitor cells, which are capable of dividing and changing into several types of brain cells used to replace damaged cells (Experimental Treatment for Frontal Lobe Injuries, n.d.). These cells have been transplanted into the brains of mice with brain injuries, and within one week lasting improvements occurred in their cognitive abilities (Experimental Treatment for Frontal Lobe Injuries, n.d.).

Conclusion

The frontal lobe is the seat of our intrinsically human ability to comprehend the feelings of others, maintain appropriate social relationships, and appreciate humor as one of the distinct traits of humankind (Shammi & Stuss, 1999). The losses suffered from injury to this brain structure change the fundamental nature of the personality, its capacity toward spontaneity and many of the human qualities that produce individuality (Blumer & Benson, 1975). The frontal lobe allows humans to draw feedback from their environment and respond in a way exclusive to the human social network, without which, the intrinsic collective nature of humankind could not exist (Bird et al., 2004). Our ability to function with the complexities of humor, social reason, and emotion, produces some of the fundamental characteristics inherent in human nature (Stuss et al., 1992). The frontal lobe has evolved by and for the complexities of higher cognitive function, and damage to the area produces a devastating intrusion into the basic human capacity for higher thinking and reason, which disrupts the fundamental parameters of the human equation.

References

Bird, C. M., Castelli, F., Malik, O., Frith, U., & Husain, M. (2004). The impact of extensive medial frontal lobe damage on ‘Theory of Mind’ and cognition. Brain, 127(4), 914-928. doi: 10.1093/brain/awh108

Blumer, D., & Benson, D., 1975. Personality changes with frontal and temporal lobe lesions. In D. Benson and D. Blumer, eds. Psychiatric Aspects of Neurologic Disease. New York: Grune & Stratton.

Center for Neuro Skills. (2010). Frontal Lobe Function. Traumatic Brain Injury Resource Guide. Retrieved October 15, 2010, from http://www.neuroskills.com/tbi/bfrontal.shtml

Dysfunction by Location: Brain Dysfunction: Merck Manual Home Edition. (n.d.). Merck & Co., Inc. - We believe the most important condition is the human one. Retrieved October 13, 2010, from http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec06/ch082/ch082b.html

Experimental Treatment for Frontal Lobe Injuries. (n.d.). Traumatic Brain Injuries. Retrieved October 13, 2010, from http://www.tbirecoverycenter.org/frontallobe.htm

Levin, H. S., Amparo, E., Eisenberg, H. M., Williams, D. H., High, W. M., McArdle, C. B., & Wiener, R. L. (1987). Magnetic resonance imaging and computerized tomography in relation to the neurobehavioral sequelae of mild and moderate head injuries [Abstract]. Journal of Neurosurgery, 66(5), 706-713.

Shammi, P., & Stuss, D. T. (1999). Humour appreciation: a role of the right frontal lobe. Brain, 122, 657-666. Retrieved October 13, 2010, from http://api.ning.com/files/

sFeZ0okalwi57MQyox3YxlT0HRXWS35XxHiOliXDaEYPA0csHcw40Q05q- BHsDqbt4jiiPjE78Bcp03Zg2R2F2gzLNhZP4Mm/Humourappreciation.pdf

Stuss, D. T., Gow, C. A., & Hetherington, C. R. (1992). "No longer Gage": Frontal lobe dysfunction and emotional changes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(3), 349-359. doi: 10.1037//0022-006X.60.3.349

Wickens, A. P. (2005). Foundations of Biopsychology (2nd ed.). New York: Pearson/Prentice Hall.