The Effects of Population Density and Noise

Population density and noise can have a variety of effects on people. When privacy, personal space, and territory are infringed upon by other people or short-term or chronic noise, the effects can range from simple annoyance to severe intrusive anxiety-producing illness (Straub, 2007). As population density increases and territory, privacy, and personal space are accroached, such accommodations demand acknowledgment to prevent the psychological effects of crowding, and to prevent aggression, anxiety, and frustration.

Understanding Territoriality, Privacy, and Personal Space

Privacy

Altman (1977) defines privacy as “selective control of access to the self or to one’s group” (p. 67). Privacy involves control over information about oneself as well as control over interactions with others (Hutchinson & Kowalski, 1999). In contemporary society, new technologies raise concern about the control over the information of others, which has forced defining balance of privacy versus public information. Privacy needs and values vary between individuals and also between situations and cultures (Clayton & Myers, 2008).

Personal Space

Personal space is the physical distance we choose by which to maintain interpersonal relationships (Hutchinson & Kowalski, 1999). Personal space and territoriality are two mechanisms for maintaining privacy. As defined by Sommer (1969) personal space is “an area with invisible boundaries surrounding a person’s body into which intruders may not come” (p. 26). Altman (1981) suggests such space is changeable, similar to privacy, and varies between individuals, situations, and culture. Neuroscientific research claims personal space is created and mediated by the human brain, and although boundaries shift within circumstances, it is of value and consequence to all people (Kennedy, Gläscher, Tyszka, & Adolphs, 2009).

Territoriality

Human territoriality encompasses temporarily durable preventive and reactive behaviors including perceptions, use and defense of places, people, objects, and ideas by means of verbal, self-marker, and environmental prop behaviors in response to the actual or implied presence of others and in response to properties of the environment, and is geared to satisfying certain primary and secondary motivational states of individuals and groups (Edney, 1974, p. 963).

Although not usually survival based as in animal territoriality, similar to animals, we maintain space by specific behaviors that infer a particular space is owned or in use. Humans have the capacity to attack and demonstrate aggressive display, and maintain other intrinsic reactions toward encroachment such as women’s nesting instincts when pregnant, or after bearing children. Research suggests it is important to emphasize ecological variables as major factors in determining territoriality and it becomes important to address the proclivity to defend resources as a factor of increasing human territoriality (Dyson-Hudson & Smith, 1978). As critical resources become limited, people seek to protect personal area and belongings.

Territoriality, Privacy, and Personal Space as Population Density Increases

Straub (2007) refers to a study by John Calhoun by which he experiments with population density within the living conditions of rats. In this study, rats behaved normally by all standards when there was ample living space, although as the population increased, the rat’s social environment deteriorated. They fought, became more territorial, infant mortality increased sharply, reproductive capacity diminished, and some rats became cannibalistic. Although these discoveries may not necessarily translate to human behavior under similar conditions, population density certainly has practical affects on populations.

Population density affects people, and it also contributes to the psychological effects of crowding whereby people feel confined and limited with less access to necessities. Crowding has been linked to aggression, social withdrawal, increased criminal acts, and inappropriate social interaction (Stokols, 1972). To decrease the symptoms of crowding, it is essential to preserve privacy, personal space, and honor territoriality as a basic human social need. As the resource of space decreases, privacy and personal space demand greater acknowledgment to prevent psychological affects. Without privacy and personal space people tend to feel less control, more competition, and have an increased tendency to react negatively to minor annoyances (Straub, 2007).

Perception is a revealing component of population density in that, if ample space is perceived, the crowding effects diminish. Therefore, changing the perception of space is as influential as actually providing more space. According to Straub (2007), the crowding effects of population density are not inevitable, and perhaps designing space in such a way to appear bigger than it actually is can affect psychological crowding. In any event, mitigating the perception of crowding is of consequence as space becomes a limited resource, and perceiving ample space has far-reaching effects on subjective well-being and health (Straub, 2007). When individuals perceive ample space, they report feeling a stronger sense of control over their environment and are less prone to anxiety and stress (Straub, 2007).

The Effect of Nature on Individuals Living in Urban Environments

Managed natural settings such as zoos, parks and other green spaces can create support and social context for interaction with nature. Not only does such interaction provide interaction, but also nurtures an environmental identity that is so often inhibited in urban living situations. Natural settings found within urban living areas encourage a perception that people should, and need to convene with nature. Maller et al. (2005), refer to beliefs promoted during the Civil War that claimed the influence of the natural environment on people’s health reduced disease, promoted health, supported community health and reduced crime. Contemporary evidence continues to supports these theories.

According to DeVries, Verheij, Groenewegen, and Spreeuwenberg (2003), urban parks play a significant role in physical activity and some research provides evidence in support of the notion that people living in urban settings reported fewer health issues. Clayton and Myers (2008) cite a Japanese study that found mortality rates were lower for individuals with green space in close proximity to their residences. Furthermore, green space reduced the stress of noise in urban settings, even those located near severely noisy environments (Gidlofgunnarsson & Ohrstrom, 2007). Greener neighborhoods seem to promote less aggressive and violent behavior, closer interpersonal relationships, better academic performance, and more positive social interaction between members of communities (Clayton & Myers, 2008).

Noise and its Effects on Individuals

Health psychologists have studied the negative health affects of chronically noisy environments. In human and animal studies, the damaging effects of noise raise blood pressure and cortisol levels, which indicates increased levels of stress (Straub, 2007). Chronic exposure to noise can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and decrease learning ability. Children are especially vulnerable to the disruptive effects of chronic noise as they learn maladaptive skills that provoke them to block specific stimuli. This can be problematic since children do not have the capacity to fully understand which stimuli should be blocked and which is essential to their learning experience (Straub, 2007). Verbal skills are decreased because when children block noise they are likely to block verbal elements as well.

According to Straub (2007), investigation into chronic noise effects in laboratory settings showed louder noise can disrupt short-term memory and decrease the ability to perform simple tasks. Individuals vary in their appraisal of noise, and the more disturbing the individual finds the noise, the greater the affect the noise will have on the individual. Even though noise may not be directly responsible for stress, the affects on sleep, anxiety provoked, and subjective attitude toward the noise has a direct effect on individual health (Straub, 2007). Noise, over which individuals have little to no control has a more severe affect on stress levels.

Noise Reduction Strategies

Fabric Placement as a Noise Mediator

Many outside noises make their way inside the home and there is often little control one can exert over such noise. One way to reduce noise inside the home is to install additional fabric over windows, and as wall décor, as well as fabric and stuffed furnishings. Noise travels more easily through glass than walls with insulation, so covering windows with layers of fabric (or blinds and curtains) can greatly reduce the amount of noise entering a home through the windows (Gaddis, n.d.). Trapping sound waves between the spaces in the layers over windows works efficiently to block out unwanted sound. Additionally, carpeting muffles and absorbs sound waves better than hard floors, which echo and increase sound as it bounces off the wood or tile (Gaddis, n.d.).

Auditory Masking for Noise Reduction

“Auditory masking is when the perception of one sound is affected by the presence of another sound. Masking can be simultaneous or non simultaneous” (Pro Audio Support, 2011, para. 1). The addition of natural or artificial sound (sometimes referred to as white noise) effectively masks sound waves in many environments and is often used in a home setting where intrusive noise from external sources becomes a problem (Hawkins, 1950). Sound masking machines are inexpensive to purchase and take a small amount of electricity. In place of purchasing a machine, running a fan or other consistent background sound will effectively block out noise. Auditory masking does not change pre-existing sound but reduces awareness of them.

Conclusion

Territoriality, privacy and personal space involve personal choice and individual perceptions of the use of space for normal functioning. Psychological effects of these perceptions vary between individuals, but limited space has an eventual profound effect on humans. In urban environments, when space is limited, aggressive and violent behavior, poor academic performance, and more negative social interaction between community members is observed (Clayton & Myers, 2008). Intrusive noise causes limited to severe annoyance, depending on how individuals interpret and perceive the intrusion (Straub, 2007). Noise reduction strategies can range from simple to complex, but are worthwhile especially in cases in which individuals have little control over anxiety- and stress-provoking noise.






References

Altman, I. (1977). Privacy regulation: culturally universal or culturally specific? Journal of Social Issues, 33(3), 66-84.

Altman, I. (1981). The environment and social behavior: privacy, personal space, territory, crowding. New York, NY: Irving.

Clayton, S. & Myers, G. (2009). Conservation psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

DeVries, S. D., Verheij, R. A., Groenewegen, P. P., & Spreeuwenberg, P. (2003). Natural environments -- healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between greenspace and health. Environment and Planning A, 35(10), 1717-1731. doi: 10.1068/a35111

Dyson-Hudson, R., & Smith, E. A. (1978). Human territoriality: an ecological reassessment.
American Anthropologist, 80(1), 21-41. doi: 10.1525/aa.1978.80.1.02a00020

Gaddis, A. (n.d.). Blinds or fabric shades to reduce outside noise. EHow. Retrieved July 10, 2011, from http://www.ehow.com/info_8618512_blinds-shades-reduce-outside-noise.html

Gidlofgunnarsson, A., & Ohrstrom, E. (2007). Noise and well-being in urban residential environments: The potential role of perceived availability to nearby green areas.

Landscape and Urban Planning, 83(2-3), 115-126. doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.03.003

Hawkins, J. E. (1950). The masking of pure tones and of speech by white noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 22(1), 6. doi: 10.1121/1.1906581

Hutchison, E. D., & Kowalski, S. (1999). Dimensions of human behavior: person and environment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

Julian J. Edney (1974). Human territoriality. Psychological Bulletin, 81(12), 959-975. doi:
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Kennedy, D. P., Gläscher, J., Tyszka, J. M., & Adolphs, R. (2009). Personal space regulation by
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healthy people: 'contact with nature' as an upstream health promotion intervention
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future research. Psychological Review, 79(3), 275-277. doi: 10.1037/h0032706

Straub, R. O. (2007). Health psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Worth.

Environmental Psychology Article Analysis

Although many current events affect environmental psychology, perhaps by far the most pervasive human affect is the process by which people obtain food. The processes range from highly sustainable to severely polluting, and a large percentage of the population is ignorant of these processes. Although many people seek healthy choices, they are not prepared to make conscious decisions, which can have altering effects on both the individual and the natural environment (Institute of Grocery Distribution, 2002). Feeding our growing populations has become an issue of grave consequence, and empirical evidence through scientific exploration is an essential component toward accommodating sustenance for both the species and the environment by which it thrives.

Article Summary

Even though there has been a substantial increase in positive attitudes on sustainable food consumption, behavior is not universally consistent with attitudes. Vermeir and Verbeke (2006) aimed to identify the behavioral gap between the two. Barriers to sustainable food consumption include personal ignorance about sustainability as well as believing sustainable products are unavailable, overpriced, or inconvenient, price being the most significant barrier (Institute of Grocery Distribution, 2002). Even when consumers can afford the price difference, there is little empirical evidence supporting the use of the more expensive product.

Vermeir and Verbeke (2006) analyzed “the impact of involvement, perceived availability, certainty, perceived consumer effectiveness, values and social norms on consumers’ attitudes and intentions towards sustainable food products” (p. 169). They found involvement with sustainability, certainty about the effects of unsustainable consumerism, and perceived consumer effectiveness had a significant positive influence on attitude and intention. Furthermore, they determined perceiving limited availability negatively affected intention to purchase, and social pressure was more influential than personal attitudes. Vermeir and Verbeke (2006) established sustainable and ethical food consumption is efficiently promoted through raising involvement, helping consumers understand the power of their choices, promoting certainty in sustainable food theories, social pressure, and increasing the awareness of availability. Schwartz (1992) and Minteer, Corley, and Manning (2004) claim linking values with intentions to purchase sustainable products varied throughout the population; however, raising public awareness and involvement, strengthening personal as well as social understanding and certainty significantly increase sustainable food consumption.

Sustainable Agriculture and Food Supply

In the recent decade, it has become apparent to agricultural science that sustainable food production is an essential component to the health and well-being of the environment. Hobbs (2007) claims during the next decade, agriculture will have to accommodate more efficient use of natural resources minimizing the affect on the environment. Because of growing population demands, agriculturists will have to provide more food from less land, and incorporate more sustainable processes. Although far more consumers opt for ethically produced or sustainable products like organic, fair trade, and those in which animals are treated humanely, human food consumption continues to be driven by convenience and habit, and people often resist change (Minteer, Corley, & Manning, 2004; Jensen & Sandoe, 2002). The decisions consumers make regarding foods and consumerism are often based on value, taste, appearance, and convenience, rather than motivations toward animal welfare or the conservation and preservation of the environment (Hobbs, 2007).

Influence on Environmental Psychology

Every issue that demands empirical evidence must be accommodated by scientific investigation (Clayton & Myers, 2009). The information obtained by Vermeir and Verbeke (2006) facilitates the design and implementation of realistic, safe, and effective ways for human navigation into the previously unknown territory of unsustainable consumerism. Because environmental psychology studies the relationship between the natural environment and its inhabitants, it is the responsibility of this psychological discipline to guide and provide reason for a more beneficial course of interaction (Clayton & Myers, 2009). As in any science, it is the questions that determine the studies, ergo, the questions create the science. More than influencing environmental psychology, these questions determine the breadth and scope of the growth and development of the discipline. Vermeir’s and Verbeke’s (2006) study is a tangible example of problems as they influence an affect toward realistic change.

Sustainable food consumption will continue to play a huge role in the natural environment’s preservation and conservation (Hobbs, 2007). As people more accurately attach value and consequence to the implications by which we process and provide food, environmental psychology continues to provide knowledge and design for agriculture and food consumption that better aligns with sustainability (Schwartz, 1992). Furthermore, the discipline determines the cognitive aspects of human engagement and provides adequate means of positively influencing masses of people (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006). The questions evoked by the need to create a system of sustainable food production continue to influence environmental psychology and its scientific exploration into further identifying both human and environmental needs, and mediating the affects of the reciprocal relationship between the nature and its human inhabitants.

Conclusion

Educating people to the need for sustainable food consumption and production proves difficult, at best, and understanding the reasoning by which people embrace sustainable food consumption, hesitate, or simply decline to engage in changing their consumerism becomes a significant component of promoting such change (Minteer, Corley, & Manning, 2004). Environmental psychology continues to play a significant role in designing effective influential means to create a more accurate awareness by which humans can implement working solutions toward the preservation and conservation of their essential and life-giving resources.


References

Clayton, S. & Myers, G. (2009). Conservation psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Hobbs, P. R. (2007). Conservation agriculture: what is it and why is it important for future

sustainable food production? The Journal of Agricultural Science, 145(02), 127. doi:

10.1017/S0021859607006892

Institute of Grocery Distribution (2002). “Consumer attitudes to ‘Eat the View’: part two – store

exit interviews”. A report prepared for the Countryside Agency by the IGD, Letchmore Heath,

Watford, Herts. http://www.eat-theview.org.uk/research/pdf/Consumer%20Attitudes%20-

%20Part%202.pdf

Jensen, K.K. and P. Sandoe, (2002). Food Safety and Ethics: The Interplay between Science and

Values, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 15(3), 245-253.

Minteer, B. A., Corley, E. A., & E. Manning, R. (2004). Environmental Ethics Beyond

Principle? The Case for a Pragmatic Contextualism. Journal of Agricultural and

Environmental Ethics, 17(2), 131-156. doi: 10.1023/B:JAGE.0000017392.71870.1f
Schwartz, S.H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values – theoretical advances and

empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1-65.

Vermeir, I., & Verbeke, W. (2006). Sustainable food consumption: exploring the consumer

“attitude – behavioral intention” gap. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics,

19(2), 169-194. doi: 10.1007/s10806-005-5485-3

Ethnic Group Conflict

Cultural conformity, especially in religious heritage is a powerful mediator of social perception. Both sides of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict are entrenched in negative social perceptions of their nemesis, and only by reconciling and lessening the divergent perspectives between the groups will reconciliation be accomplished. The opposing doctrines create a religiously biased lens that supports and maintains the traditionally held stereotypes of each other. Although religion is a central theme in their conflict, it may serve as a foundational bridge between their apparently weighted differences. Peace building can alter perceptions and promote positive social interactions when common ground is emphasized (Byrne, (191).

Cultural Conformity

According to Shiraev and Levy (2010), "conformity is a form of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes and/or behavior to adhere to a group or social norm" (p. 283). Social psychology explains human conformity as the need to accommodate the majority, maintain consensus, to reduce negative sanctions, and to live up to the expectations of other people to maintain positive relationships (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). According to the rational actor theories, conformity is a rational choice whereby people choose from available alternatives after determining whether benefits or negative consequences will result from their choice.

Regarding the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, each group is represented by and behaves according to their respective religious doctrine, and religious and political conformity is of significant consequence to citizenship in either of these areas (Hofman, 1977). In both Judaism and Islamic cultures, consistency in religious attitudes is much more complex and rigorous than in other religions and demands following the rules and expectations of religious norms and leadership. Because of the strict religious conformity, there is little flexibility in attitudes, and beliefs intricately woven into the cultural fabric of group. Although religious and political conflict exists between the Muslim and Jewish religions, some of the current issues concern extremist groups from either side who determine their own set of (usually violent) rules of cultural conformity. Grave differences in religious affiliation continue to distance the two sides. Whereas Palestinians are primarily Muslim (Sunni), the majority of Israelis are Jewish. Religion in both areas has maintained a consistently central role in shaping the cultures and lifestyles in both cultures (Hofman, 1977), and religion is a cultural variable that can contribute or detract from understandings between nations or societies (Cohen, 1990). The intolerant attitudes perpetuated by both groups and various political issues, creates an environment in which mutual exclusivity prevents reconciliation.

Social Perception and Social Cognition

Social perception is the process by which people aim to understand themselves and each other, whereas social cognition is the process by which people interpret, remember, and use information about the world and ourselves. People in all cultures recall experiences to make decisions. Within their cultural milieu, people develop attitudes, beliefs, and judgments through socialization experiences. Social perception is culturally rooted, so people raised in similar environments interpret their experiences in similar ways, although when people are exposed to different religions and lifestyles, they are likely to have radically different world views. The relationship between social perception and social cognition is best described by explaining social perception as it exists as a function of social cognition. Culture colors perceptions so consequently, social cognition functions within the cultural perception.

The divergent perspectives of the Palestinians and the Israelis contribute to their conflicting beliefs of each other and their complex worldview which, in turn, supports their perspectives. In the case of these two warring factions, they engage in conflict against one another because of their respective views of each other, which is through a biased lens of the traditionally held stereotypes of the other. For example, many Palestinians believe Israel does not want to reach a peaceful agreement with the Israelis, but wants to continue to engage in controlling the entire territory between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. From the Israeli perspective, they believe the Palestinians seek to conquer Palestine and are using official peace-related claims as a temporary strategy. Because of the various opinions and interpretations, it has become difficult to articulate the exact demands of each party. These are political issues about which many citizens on both sides disagree.

Heider's theory of attitude balance, which claims people seek consistency in their attitudes and beliefs is important to consider (Spector, 2008). People tend to overestimate positive characteristics of people they like and underestimate positive traits and place emphasis on the negative ones of those who they do not care for (Heider, 1959). Applying this theory to the age-old conflict between the Palestinians and Israelis, each group has perpetuated the negative aspects of the other, and passed this information generationally, usually through religious affiliation. Not only do members of each group perpetuate these beliefs, they refuse information that presents evidence contrary to their beliefs and attitudes (Krueger & DiDonato, 2008). As each side devalues and maintains derogatory attitudes toward the other, each group becomes more entrenched in their perception of the other (Krueger & DiDonato, 2008).

Social Perceptions That Require Change

The religions of both sides are of Abrahamic origin, tracing their common religious origin to Abraham, or Abrahamic spiritual tradition, the similarities they refuse to observe (WGBH Educational Foundation, 2002). Both religions, along with Christianity have similarities, which inextricably link them in a common theological dogma: all three are monotheistic, and believe in God as the higher power and source of moral law. The sacred tales of these religions include many of the same characters, histories, and places although often told from different perspectives and with different meanings (WGBH Educational Foundation, 2002). Although Christianity, Judaism, and the Muslim faith are defined by common beliefs, they have many internal differences based on details of doctrine and practice. These differences are emphasized and escalated to the point of extreme contention.

As long as the cultural perceptions are instilled in the younger generations of both groups in conflict, the problems will continue (Shamir & Shikaki, 2002). Although the young children are too immature to determine whether they will carry the burden of history, during later years, such as during adolescence, young adults may ponder their limited choice and investigate the reality of the claims of each side. Until new perceptions are embraced in both groups, the unsubstantiated claims and distorted perceptions of the enemy will continue to provoke conflict between them.

According to Huntington (1996), "international stability can be advanced by nations discovering and developing greater intercultural understanding and appreciation of each other" (p. 320). Research supports the importance of culture and psychological perceptions in politics and religion (Huntington, 1996). Peace building can affect change in perception and the quality of social interactions with emphasis on equal status contact, intimate encounters, and cooperative relationships, and discovering common ground in another group can promote improved mutual perceptions (Byrne, (191). One of the most significant provocations between the two groups, and the escalatory influence is religious differences, so reconciliation in this area will promote more accurate social perceptions on both sides.

According to Byrne (1969), individuals are more apt to change negative attitudes toward another group when they acknowledge attitudes and beliefs similar to their own. Because there are similarities in rituals and terminologies in both Abrahamic religions, this could be the starting point for conciliatory action. Mollov and Barhoum (1998) demonstrated similarities in the religious framework and customs between Islam and Judaism. Additionally, Mollov and Barhoum (1998) claim,

Interactions between the Israeli and Palestinian students and faculty have not remained limited to the formal meetings. Personal relationships have developed and survived the vicissitudes of sometimes turbulent current events; members have reacted constructively during tragedy and difficulty and have visited each other on personal occasions of both illness and celebration, thus creating a strong human bond for the dialogues and cooperation efforts to continue (Para. 9).

Although limited in scope, evidence such as the in experience of Israeli and Palestinian students and faculty, there is a strong basis for focusing on inter-religious dialogue as a means to mediating social perceptions between the two groups (Mollov & Lavie, 2001). Communication based on religious ideals is a reasonable conciliatory point on which to begin resolution because of the depth and extraordinary commitment of both sides to maintaining a presence on the land they cherish because of religious heritage (Mollov & Lavie, 2001). To change social perceptions based in such an ideological balance of power, it is apparent that religious and culturally based convictions must accommodate a middle ground.

Conclusion

It would be far too simple to claim an easy solution for the long-established Palestinian-Israeli conflict, although changing social perception through the mediation of inter-religious communication can play a significant role in facilitating change in how individuals on each side view members of the other. Notwithstanding the complications resulting from instigating such reconciliation and the complexities of this definitively age old stand-off, in-roads have been forged between students and faculty on either side. Social perceptions have been changed, and regardless of the extraordinary challenge to mediate such long-standing hatred, changing social perception can be accomplished by emphasizing and embracing similarities in religious heritage.


References

Byrne, D. (1961). Interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62(3), 713-715. doi: 10.1037/h0044721

Cohen, R. (1990). Culture and conflict in Egyptian-Israeli relations: a dialogue of the deaf. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Heider, F. (1959). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York:Wiley.

Hofman, J. (1977). Identity and intergroup perception in Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 1(3), 79-102. doi: 10.1016/0147-1767(77)90021-9

Krueger, J. I., & DiDonato, T. E. (2008). Social categorization and the perception of groups and group differences. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(2), 733-750. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00083.x

Mollov, B., & Barhoum, M. I. (1999). Building religious/cultural bridges between Israeli and Palestinian university students. Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics, 9, 55-55.

Mollov, B., & Lavie, C. (2001). Culture, dialogue, and perception change In he Israeli- Palestinian conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 12(1), 69-87. doi: 10.1108/eb022850

Shamir, J., & Shikaki, K. (2002). Self-serving perceptions of terrorism among Israelis and Palestinians. Political Psychology, 23(3), 537-557. doi: 10.1111/0162-895X.00297

Shiraev, E. B. & Levy, D. A. (2010). Cross-cultural psychology: Critical thinking and contemporary applications (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn Bacon.

WGBH Educational Foundation. (2002). Global connections. PBS: Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved July 01, 2011, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html

Environmental Psychology

Environmental psychology aims to systematically and scientifically study the affect of the environment on humans as well as the human effects of their use of the natural environment (Clayton & Myers, 2009). Theories of evolutionary psychology and biophilia help to explain the inextricable relationship between nature and the human species. Research and empirical evidence obtained by this psychological discipline helps in designing a working parameter by which humans can fully understand their role in conserving and maintaining the environment as it supports and maintains the human species.

Defining Environmental Psychology

Environmental psychology is "a specialty within psychology that studies the reciprocal influences of people and their environments, characterized by both systematic theory and a concern for practical application" (Clayton & Myers, 2009, p. 209). The perspective of environmental psychology embraces the interplay between people and their environment and aims to define appropriate rules of engagement for human interaction. Central to environmental psychology's theme is the recognition of the reciprocal influence each has on the other (Clayton & Myers, 2009). As the natural environment provides people with the resources by which they create their surroundings, and the provisions of food, water, shelter, and other human necessities, so must humans learn to care, nurture, conserve, and protect their only environment, in essence, the hand that feeds them (Clayton & Myers, 2009).

Theoretical Approaches to Environmental Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary psychology posits the mind and human behavior evolved as a means to enhance the ability for the species' survival. Evolutionary theories aim to identify parts of the mind or its systems, such as perception, thought processes, and biases that can be associated with various components of the environment. Evolutionary theory engages the idea that changes in human systems were necessitated for the human organism's need for adaptation, which was necessary to its survival. The natural environment dictated the particular changes necessary, such as social organizing, mating, and the ability to use language as a means of communication. Rather than deciding on what they would learn, the environment dictated how and what needed attention specifically for survivability. Thought processes and systems that did not enhance survivability were never initiated. The human mind has evolved as a result of the environmental challenges it has encountered and to aid in its survival, has had to surmount them. As the species has been molded according to the demands of the environment, it has also determined how the species relates to nature.

Biophilia

The biophilia hypothesis postulates the human need to adapt to the environment created an intrinsic genetically based predisposition to associate with and depend on the natural environment. This theory claims human behavior and emotions are responses to external stimuli rather than directly inherited traits, although certain types of responses can be genetically correlated (Clayton & Myers, 2009). For example, it served the human species to make note of edible plants and safe environments provided by nature, and an awareness of predators and other specific threats. Biophobia refers to negative responses to the environment that directly add to human reproductive success, such as the fear of dangerous animals, toxic substances, and fatal situations. According to Clayton and Myers (2009), this could have led to an intrinsic preparedness toward universally dangerous phenomena such as spiders, bad-smelling foods, or positioning oneself into small spaces. Some of the most common phobias provide examples for such intrinsic preparedness, as these fears are easily learned, and unlearned with significant difficulty. Developing appropriate intrinsic fears as well as adopting a preference to supportive landscapes has been supportive to human evolution (Clayton & Myers, 2009).

The Importance of Research in Environmental Psychology

As stated by Clayton and Myers (2009), the relationship between humans and their natural environment is complex, and as humans affect and alter their environment, so the natural environment determines human survival. The two are inextricably entwined and the investigation and research into the relationship has become an essential component of human survival. As has recently become evident, the pollution of the environment and the human affect on the natural balance of nature may claim the demise of the race if not adequately addressed in a timely manner (Hansla, Gamble, Juliusson, & Gärling, 2008). In designing a fundamental parameter by which humans can fully understand their practical and emotional role in attending to the environment, they may essentially fulfill adaptation requirements for the species. Certainly, as humans strive to become conscious of their natural environment, they become more conscious of themselves.

According to Kaplan (1995), natural environments are essential for restorative experiences, and research benefits both nature and the human species in creating an integrative parameter to protect the relationship between the two. Only through scientific research will people become fully apprised of the affect each has on the other (Hansla, Gamble, Juliusson, & Gärling, 2008). As a benefit to human evolution, understanding the vital psychological role nature plays in daily life is consequential (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1995). Although the common environmental anecdote is pervasive among many Americans, human affects continue to disturb the natural ecological balance. Scientific study and empirical evidence is necessary to gain a more articulate understanding of our role in maintaining the precise natural balance that most accurately sustains the human species' survival (Hansla, Gamble, Juliusson, & Gärling, 2008). Although many people have their favorite place they know and love, few know how to preserve it (Korpela, 1989).

Conclusion

Whereas most organisms behave within a system of checks and balances that supports not only the species, but also the environment on which it relies, the human species deviates from such a balanced system, and must rely on a discipline to teach, explain, direct, and design appropriate rules of human engagement. Using theories of environmental psychology, people can restore the natural balance of the environment. Without the conservation, care, and maintenance of the natural habitat, the human organism can neither function nor thrive, and will eventually cease to exist. The natural environment directly supports and maintains the system by which humans thrive.

References

Clayton, S. & Myers, G. (2009). Conservation psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Hansla, A., Gamble, A., Juliusson, A., & Gärling, T. (2008). The relationships between awareness of consequences, environmental concern, and value orientations. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(1), 1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.08.004

Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169-182. doi: 10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2

Kaplan, R., & Kaplan, S. (1995). The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. Michigan: Cambridge University Press.

Korpela, K. (1989). Place-identity as a product of environmental self-regulation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 9(3), 241-256. doi: 10.1016/S0272-4944(89)80038-6

Psychological Disorder: Obsessive Compulsive

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a condition characterized by unwanted repetitive and anxiety-producing thoughts accompanied by the compulsive act of rituals the individual believes will protect them from the anxiety (Hansell & Damour, 2008). The obsessions are thoughts or impulses over which the individual has no control except to apply the ritual for relief, and the compulsions make the individual feel driven to do something - usually the ritualistic practice for the purpose of relieving the anxiety (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Although obsessive-compulsive disorder is more common than traditionally perceived, it seems to have no cultural boundaries. Although its genetic component is well-established, the behavior associated with the disorder is considered abnormal from any cultural perspective.

Human Development and Socialization

According to Shiraev and Levy (2011) human development refers to the physical, psychological, and social behavioral changes that take place over the life span, whereas socialization is the process by which an individual becomes enculturated through experience, observation, and instruction. During the socialization process, individuals learn the values and behavioral norms of their culture. Both human development and socialization are lifelong processes that continue throughout the lifespan (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Human development consists of continual change and evolution, wherein people alter attitudes, beliefs, and values and acquire new ones. This development takes place within a social construct, usually the native culture, although, for the most part, development takes place similarly in most cultures. Cultural expectations of parents are especially evident during childhood. "In societies that are small, egalitarian, and with little occupational specialization, children are expected to learn “on their own,” whereas in industrialized democratic societies there are explicit expectations about what, with whom, when, and how children should learn" (Levy, 1996, as cited by Shiraev & Levy, 2010, p. 199). Even though fundamental human development takes place mostly without regard to the social construct within which it forms, all of the characteristics of a specific culture precisely determine an individual's socialization, and these characteristics become intrinsic and often unconscious mechanisms within the individual (Shiraev & Levy, 2010).

Affects of Human Development on Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Current research supports the prevalence of OCD as affecting 2% to 3% of the world’s population (Hollander, 1997). It is the fourth most common psychiatric illness in the USA (Karno et al., 1988) and is the tenth highest cause of disability in the world (Murray and Lopez, 1996). The prevalence of OCD in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico is greater than 2% (Karno et al., 1988). People with OCD are likely to suffer from major depression and other anxiety disorders as co-morbid conditions. This co-morbidity may be due to a dysfunction in the serotonin system in the brain characteristic to depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders (Lundbeck Institute, n.d.). Because the worldwide prevalence varies only slightly from the prevalence in the United States, it is difficult to point to poverty or other developmental complications because of cultural characteristics and suggests an aggregate incidence throughout all populations. However, there is some evidence that associates the prevalence of OCD with higher IQ and in more industrially developed countries where competence is expected at an earlier age (Peterson, Pine, Cohen, & Brook, 2001). Although evidence points to a substantial, although partial genetic component, it is essential to consider the possible environmental factors that interact and affect the inherited predisposition (Pub Med Health, 2010). At this time; however, environmental links are weak.

Affects of Socialization on Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

          "One must observe the proper rites."

          "What is a rite?" asked the little prince.

          "Those also are actions too often neglected," said the fox. "They are what make one
           day different from other days, one hour from other hours."

           —The Little Prince, by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a common and serious illness whose core symptoms seem to merge more closely with normal human behavior and cultural traditions than those of most other mental illnesses (Hollander, Kim, Khanna, & Pallanti, 2007). Persistent thoughts can be morally or physically abhorrent, and can cause shame in the afflicted individual (Pallanti, 2008). The epidemiology of this disorder is consistent in countries in cross-cultural studies (Pallanti, 2008). Corroborating results from other studies suggest cultural variation has little affect on prevalence. Interestingly, however, symptoms of the disorder often assume characteristics of consequence to the individual's culture. For example, a correlation between compulsive cleansing and religious rituals has been reported among Egyptian Muslims (Okasha et al, 1994). "The religious connotation of obsessive-compulsive disorder in Muslim culture is denoted by the term weswas, which refers to the devil as well as obsession" (Pallanti, 2008, p. 169). The results of current cross-cultural research suggest obsessive-compulsive disorder has a more significant association in neurobiology than in cultural differences (Pallanti, 2008).

Conclusion

Socialization, human development, and enculturation determine the perception, development, treatment, and the full range of emotions associated with psychological disorders. Obsessive-compulsive disorder demonstrates significant prevalence cross-culturally and is neither accepted nor construed as normal from any cultural perspective. Although human development affects individuals without full regard to the social construct within which it forms, socialization determines characteristics of cultural consequence and defines acceptable and expected behaviors, and provides a definition to normal and abnormal behavior.



References

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Hollander E. Obsessive–compulsive disorder: the hidden epidemic. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1997; 58: 3–6.

Hollander E, Kim S, Khanna S, Pallanti S. (2007). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and
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Karno, M., Golding, K. M., & Sorenson, S. B. (1988). The epidemiology of obsessive– compulsive disorder in five US communities. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1094- 1099.

Lundbeck Institute. (n.d.). Focus on brain disorders: OCD epidemiology. Brain Explorer. Retrieved June 23, 2011, from http://www.brainexplorer.org/ocd/OCD_Epidemiology.shtml

Murray, C. J., & Lopez, A. D. (1996). The global burden of disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries, and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020. Cambridge, MA: Published by the Harvard School of Public Health on behalf of the World Health Organization and the World Bank.

Okasha A, Saad A, Khalil A. H., El Dawla A.S., Yehia N. (1994). Phenomenology of obsessive- compulsive disorder: a transcultural study. Comprehensive Psychiatry 35, 191–197

Pallanti, S. (2008). Transcultural observations of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(2), 169-170. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07111815

Peterson, B. S., Pine, D. S., Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (2001). Prospective, longitudinal study of tic, obsessive-compulsive, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders in an epidemiological sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(6), 685-695. doi: 10.1097/00004583-200106000-00014

Pub Med Health. (2010). Obsessive-compulsive disorder. PubMed Health. Retrieved June 23, 2011, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001926/