Sensorimotor: Birth to Two Years
The progression during the sensorimotor stage witnesses the infant's development from purely reflexive and instinctual motor skills, to the early development of symbolic thought. According to Olson and Hergenhahn (2009), this stage is characterized by a lack of language. During this stage, the child develops a parameter by which to understand its environment by combining its sensory experience with physical actions. They see the entire world with only themselves as a frame of reference, and their world is the only one that exists.
Piaget thought the most significant accomplishment during this time was object permanence, which is accomplished when the child understands that objects maintain existence even though they may be hidden from sight. For example, before the end of this stage, the infant will learn to play peek-a-boo but will understand that her mother does not disappear when hiding under the blanket. The mother becomes permanent.
During this stage the child will begin to create habits and develop circular reactions in which the infant will learn to reproduce a particular event that initially occurred by chance. Infants become more object-oriented and replace self-preoccupa-tion with an interest in their environment. They also learn to repeat actions that produce pleasure and interest (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
Piaget described the child as a young scientist conducting experiments on her environment to discover objects' properties and to solve problems and meet challenges. By the end of this stage, objects are separate from the child's sense of self and permanent.
Preoperational Stage: Two to Seven Years
The preoperational stage is marked by what Piaget described as a qualitatively new psychological functioning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). The child learns to create and use representations of objects by drawings, words, and images, and begins to form stable concepts and mental reasoning along with beliefs that incorporate magical ideas. The child's thinking remains egocentric, and he has difficulty understanding the viewpoint of others. He still has difficulty performing mental tasks, and as such is "preoperational."
Even though children at this stage cannot use information in logical ways, they do begin to think in images and symbols. Their mental abilities include extensive use of language and pretend play.
At this stage, children will create complex pretend worlds and include everyone and everything around them in their fantasy. Between the ages of two and seven, children are still limited by egocentrism and animism, and demonstrate an inability to see the world from other than their own perspective. In their animistic belief, they may think the doll that fell off the shelf is mad at them for not having enough play time.
Between the ages of four and seven children begin primitive reasoning in which they become more inquisitive and curious. Centration and conservation are characteristic of children in the preoperational stage. Piaget demonstrated in his commonly known test of conservation believed that if a child does not understand the conservation-of-liquid task, they are still at the preoperational stage of cognitive development. Piaget thought children primarily learn through imitation and play during the sensorimotor and preoperational stages, as they create a vocabulary of symbolic images through internalized activity (Ginsburg & Opper, 1988).
Concrete Operational: Seven to Eleven Years
The third stage of cognitive development in Piaget's theory is concrete operational, which occurs between the ages of seven and 11 (Ginsburg & Opper, 1988). Children in this stage show intelligence through logical and systematic thinking that relates to concrete objects (Huitt & Hummel, 2003).
At this stage, children are no longer egocentric and can finally understand situations and events from someone else's perspective, and they no longer believe in animism. They will not think if the doll falls off the shelf, she is angry at the child for not playing with her. The child will check the doll's sitting place and put her back in a less precarious position, understanding logically why the doll may have fallen from the shelf.
Other accomplishments during this stage include seriation, in which the child can grade objects according to shape, size, or other characteristic. The child is likewise capable of classification, or classifying objects by the same criteria.
Children can understand conservation, or the idea that size, length, or number is unrelated to its appearance. The child is able to account for multiple aspects of a problem to find a solution. Children also understand transitivity and relationships of order, for example, if the first block is taller than the second block, and the second block is taller than the third block, then the first block is taller than the third block.
Children are capable of understanding reversibility and objects can be manipulated and changed, although later returned to their original state. In this stage, children remain limited to finding solutions to concrete problems but cannot yet, but cannot understand abstract concepts or accomplish hypothetical tasks (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
Formal Operation: 11 through Adult
The fourth stage of Piaget's theory of development begins at age 11, but continues into adulthood. Intelligence is evident with the use of more complex logic and the use of symbols that relate to abstract ideas (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). According to Huitt and Hummel (2003), not all adults are capable of formal operations, and a mere 35% of high school graduates from industrialized countries reach this level of formal operational thinking.
In this stage, individuals gain the capacity to reason logically, think abstractly, and draw conclusions from ideas and information and can also apply these ideas and conclusions to hypothetical situations. This is evident in the new capacity for verbal problem solving, which becomes more logical and systematic. They can use hypothetical-deductive reasoning and as such, develop hypotheses, or systematically configure a path to the solution (Huitt & Hummel, 2003).
Adolescent egocentrism dominates adolescents' social thinking and they develop a heightened self-consciousness, which is apparent in their acute sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility. They become more able to understand abstract concepts such as love, morals, and values. Piaget believed understanding and using deductive logic was an essential part of accomplishing this stage. Many recall using deductive logic in hypothetical situations presented in high school science and mathematics classes. This stage enables the ability to reason contrary to fact, and adolescents in formal operational stage can use any statement as the basis of an argument whether it is true or false (Cherry, n.d.).
Subscribe To
Posts
All Comments
Monday, April 4, 2011
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Within the psychological paradigm, several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning which describes the process of making new associations between events in the environment ("Index of learning theories and models," 2011). There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In behaviorism, classical conditioning was the first type of learning discovered, and so named "classical" conditioning. Ivan Pavlov made the initial discoveries through his studies of the digestive system of dogs when he became intrigued by the hungry dogs' eventual learned response to Pavlov and his assistants. His investigations then focused on the dogs' associative learning from which he established his theory of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning has since found application in human behavior, both in creating specific behaviors, and in psychological treatments, extinguishing its maladaptive forms, or replacing that which is maladaptive with a more appropriate response.
The Theory of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning first studied by Ivan Pavlov ("Index of learning theories and models," 2011). Classical conditioning takes place with the repeated pairing of a stimulus with another stimulus, to evoke the response to the first stimulus with only the presentation of the second stimulus (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Pavlov referred to the first stimulus as the unconditioned stimulus, which evoked an unconditioned response. It is important to note the unconditioned stimulus naturally and reflexively evokes an unlearned and unconditioned response (Huitt, n.d.). Pavlov called the second stimulus the neutral stimulus, which, with repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually became the conditioned stimulus by evoking a conditioned response (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). The conditioned stimulus is originally a neutral stimulus that has no natural tendency to evoke a specific response, however, after the repeated pairing will evoke the same response as the original unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov identified an eventual cognitive association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairing, and this association affects a behavioral response to the conditioned stimulus. He referred to this as the conditioned response (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
In the process Pavlov called extinction, if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the conditioned response, eventually the conditioned response will decrease or become extinguished (Huitt, n.d.). Once the conditioned response rate returns to a pre-conditioned frequency, the conditioning is extinguished. If the extinguished conditioned stimulus is paired with the conditioned response again, Pavlov demonstrated the spontaneous recovery of the cognitive association between the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. In Classical conditioning generalization takes place when the conditioned stimulus becomes associated with similar or related stimuli that evoke the same conditioned response as the original conditioned stimulus (Huitt, n.d.). For example, in John Watson's experiment with Baby Albert, the child generalized his fear of the white rat to other white fluffy items such as beards, other white fluffy animals, etc. Discrimination takes place when one stimulus out of the class of generalized stimuli is too different from the original conditioned stimulus to cause the conditioned response.
The Chosen Scenario
I have chosen, as a hypothetical scenario, my desire to sell a toxic and addictive substance to naïve and innocent people by attracting them to it by making them think it will make them happy and beautiful. People are naturally attracted to beauty, enjoyment, and happiness, and the idea of people having fun together. I will make several commercials that portray attractive people laughing, enjoying each other's company, smiling, feeling warmth, and simple enjoyment and simultaneously, using my toxic product. By repeatedly pairing the idea of warmth, attractiveness, fun, and beauty with the toxic product, I will create a cognitive association between the positive experiences and the toxic product. Eventually, individuals will automatically associate the toxic product with positive feelings and will become attracted to and use my product for the same result of positive good feelings of warmth, happiness, and beauty. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is the good feelings, and the unconditioned response (UR) is attraction to these positive sensations and emotions. The toxic product is originally a neutral stimulus, not evoking any specific response. By repeatedly pairing the neutral stimulus (the toxic product) with the unconditioned stimulus (the positive sensations and emotions,) the neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS). Individuals will begin to automatically associate the toxic product with good feelings (CS), and become attracted to it. This attraction becomes the conditioned response (CR). Eventually, the toxic product will become attractive, but the unsuspecting people will not be able to identify the automatic cognitive association by which they are attracted to the product.
Table Illustrating Classical Conditioning Applied to My Scenario
UC >>>>> UR
|
|
|
|
|
CS >>>>>>>>>>>>>>> CR
US enjoyment, good feelings
UR attraction
CS toxic product
CR attraction to the toxic product
Classical conditioning is a form of associational learning and describes learning which has been acquired through experience (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). It is a natural, intrinsically motivated way humans and other organisms adapt to their environment. Classical conditioning takes place automatically and without cognitive awareness, and the conditioned responses are involuntary. This type of conditioning describes the process by which an organism creates a new association or a new relationship between two stimuli and the eventual response. Associative learning of this type is the basic parameter of how humans learned to adapt to their environment immediately and over time and enabled their evolution and their ability to accommodate their surroundings. Although learning takes other complex forms, humans and other organisms continue to learn through the fundamental associations in the process of classical conditioning.
References
Huitt, W. G. (n.d.). Classical Conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Retrieved March 18, 2011, from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behsys/classcnd.html
Index of learning theories and models. (2011, March). Learning Theories. Retrieved March 17, 2011, from http://www.learning-theories.com/
Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Within the psychological paradigm, several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning which describes the process of making new associations between events in the environment ("Index of learning theories and models," 2011). There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In behaviorism, classical conditioning was the first type of learning discovered, and so named "classical" conditioning. Ivan Pavlov made the initial discoveries through his studies of the digestive system of dogs when he became intrigued by the hungry dogs' eventual learned response to Pavlov and his assistants. His investigations then focused on the dogs' associative learning from which he established his theory of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning has since found application in human behavior, both in creating specific behaviors, and in psychological treatments, extinguishing its maladaptive forms, or replacing that which is maladaptive with a more appropriate response.
The Theory of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning first studied by Ivan Pavlov ("Index of learning theories and models," 2011). Classical conditioning takes place with the repeated pairing of a stimulus with another stimulus, to evoke the response to the first stimulus with only the presentation of the second stimulus (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Pavlov referred to the first stimulus as the unconditioned stimulus, which evoked an unconditioned response. It is important to note the unconditioned stimulus naturally and reflexively evokes an unlearned and unconditioned response (Huitt, n.d.). Pavlov called the second stimulus the neutral stimulus, which, with repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually became the conditioned stimulus by evoking a conditioned response (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). The conditioned stimulus is originally a neutral stimulus that has no natural tendency to evoke a specific response, however, after the repeated pairing will evoke the same response as the original unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov identified an eventual cognitive association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairing, and this association affects a behavioral response to the conditioned stimulus. He referred to this as the conditioned response (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
In the process Pavlov called extinction, if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the conditioned response, eventually the conditioned response will decrease or become extinguished (Huitt, n.d.). Once the conditioned response rate returns to a pre-conditioned frequency, the conditioning is extinguished. If the extinguished conditioned stimulus is paired with the conditioned response again, Pavlov demonstrated the spontaneous recovery of the cognitive association between the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. In Classical conditioning generalization takes place when the conditioned stimulus becomes associated with similar or related stimuli that evoke the same conditioned response as the original conditioned stimulus (Huitt, n.d.). For example, in John Watson's experiment with Baby Albert, the child generalized his fear of the white rat to other white fluffy items such as beards, other white fluffy animals, etc. Discrimination takes place when one stimulus out of the class of generalized stimuli is too different from the original conditioned stimulus to cause the conditioned response.
The Chosen Scenario
I have chosen, as a hypothetical scenario, my desire to sell a toxic and addictive substance to naïve and innocent people by attracting them to it by making them think it will make them happy and beautiful. People are naturally attracted to beauty, enjoyment, and happiness, and the idea of people having fun together. I will make several commercials that portray attractive people laughing, enjoying each other's company, smiling, feeling warmth, and simple enjoyment and simultaneously, using my toxic product. By repeatedly pairing the idea of warmth, attractiveness, fun, and beauty with the toxic product, I will create a cognitive association between the positive experiences and the toxic product. Eventually, individuals will automatically associate the toxic product with positive feelings and will become attracted to and use my product for the same result of positive good feelings of warmth, happiness, and beauty. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is the good feelings, and the unconditioned response (UR) is attraction to these positive sensations and emotions. The toxic product is originally a neutral stimulus, not evoking any specific response. By repeatedly pairing the neutral stimulus (the toxic product) with the unconditioned stimulus (the positive sensations and emotions,) the neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS). Individuals will begin to automatically associate the toxic product with good feelings (CS), and become attracted to it. This attraction becomes the conditioned response (CR). Eventually, the toxic product will become attractive, but the unsuspecting people will not be able to identify the automatic cognitive association by which they are attracted to the product.
Table Illustrating Classical Conditioning Applied to My Scenario
UC >>>>> UR
|
|
|
|
|
US + CS >>>>>>>>>>> UR
CS >>>>>>>>>>>>>>> CR
US enjoyment, good feelings
UR attraction
CS toxic product
CR attraction to the toxic product
***
Classical conditioning is a form of associational learning and describes learning which has been acquired through experience (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). It is a natural, intrinsically motivated way humans and other organisms adapt to their environment. Classical conditioning takes place automatically and without cognitive awareness, and the conditioned responses are involuntary. This type of conditioning describes the process by which an organism creates a new association or a new relationship between two stimuli and the eventual response. Associative learning of this type is the basic parameter of how humans learned to adapt to their environment immediately and over time and enabled their evolution and their ability to accommodate their surroundings. Although learning takes other complex forms, humans and other organisms continue to learn through the fundamental associations in the process of classical conditioning.
References
Huitt, W. G. (n.d.). Classical Conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Retrieved March 18, 2011, from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behsys/classcnd.html
Index of learning theories and models. (2011, March). Learning Theories. Retrieved March 17, 2011, from http://www.learning-theories.com/
Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Sunday, March 20, 2011
Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinner identified several fundamental principles of learning, based on his experiments with rats and pigeons. From his experiments, he explained how humans learn behaviors or change established behaviors, and further inferred most behavior is shaped by patterns of reinforcement in an individual's environment. He called this process operant conditioning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). According to Skinner, two general principles are associated with operant conditioning: a response followed by a reinforcing stimulus will most likely be repeated, and second, anything that increases the rate of response by the operant is a reinforcing stimulus. Operant behavior is maintained by its consequences and the learner leverages the environment (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). The importance of Skinner's discoveries and theories is evident in their wide use in science, psychology, and childrearing. Its continued use demonstrates its applicability and appropriateness in daily life as well as severe problematic maladaptive behaviors (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
The Theory of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the use of behavior's preceding circumstances or its consequences affects and produces behavior. It occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior, because of cognitive associations between, and expectations of consequences for a behavior (Cherry. n.d.). According to Olson and Hergenhahn (2009), Skinner believed "we are what we have been reinforced for being" (p. 76). In essence, he believed behavior is controlled by reinforcement (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). In operant conditioning the learner responds and produces a reinforcing stimulus (Cherry, n.d.). There is no stimulus preceding the behavior, the behavior is a consequence of the response. Skinner (1965) coined the term operant to describe active behavior that operates on the environment to provoke consequences. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit daily (Cherry, n.d.).
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a tool of operant conditioning and can be either positive or negative. Reinforcement is a consequence that strengthens or increases the probability of a response recurring. Positive reinforcement occurs when the outcome that follows behavior is favorable, and as such, the behavior is strengthened by the favorable outcome, as in the case of praise or a reward following behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs when an adverse event is removed following behavior, and the behavior is strengthened by removing that which is unfavorable (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Whereas positive reinforcement is the addition of a positive consequence following a specific behavior, negative reinforcement is the removal of a negative consequence following a specific behavior. Both positive and negative reinforcement are designed to strengthen or increase the likelihood of the same or similar behavior recurring (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Both types of reinforcement encourage a continuance of the behavior that precedes the consequence.
Effective Reinforcement
Generally, positive reinforcement seems to be the most effective type of conditioning. It has positive emotional effects and it clearly identifies correctness and appropriateness. Immediate feedback is usually more effective than consequences given later. B. F. Skinner argued against the use of punishment because of its lack of long-term effectiveness while others believe its emotional side effects, and the lack of information conveyed to the operant for correcting behavior make it a less effective conditioning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
The efficacy of the reinforcement may depend on the situation in which reinforcement is used. Negative reinforcement may be more effective when negative circumstances are already established, although positive reinforcement may be more effective in a situation in which there are no established negative consequences, and adding a favorable reward will lead to the continuance of the positive or acceptable behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). The effectiveness of reinforcement is lessened if there is no need or desire for the reinforcement. For example, offering a fully sated child more ice cream will not be as effective as offering the dessert to a child who has had none. Deprivation of the dessert makes it an effective reinforcement, and as such, for the deprived child, the effectiveness of the consequence increases.
Operant Conditioning Scenario
I had the opportunity to use operant conditioning to change the behavior of a stroke patient. His wife (a good friend) was extremely frustrated by his refusal to wear adult diapers to prevent him from urinating on the furniture and assuring he reached the bathroom without accident. First, I considered the situation to determine which type of conditioning would be most effective and equally appropriate for his generally intelligent adult character. He is an artistic man and highly aware of the esthetic quality of his proximal environment. I decided to purchase extremely unattractive shower curtains with which his wife and I covered all of the furniture, and explained to him the plastic coverings must stay in place to protect the furniture. If he decided to wear the protective undergarments, his wife would remove the shower curtains. He maintained his refusal of the undergarments for another two days, after which he decided he could not live with the shower curtain couture. This is an example of the negative reinforcement type of conditioning, although we first implemented what appeared to be a positive punishment when we placed the shower curtains on the furniture. However, we set the shower curtains in place so we could use a continued plan of negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement Schedule for Scenario
In my chosen scenario, for good behavior (wearing protective undergarments) the behavior was negatively reinforced by the removal of the shower curtains. We used a continuous reinforcement schedule and reinstated the use of the shower curtains for the undesired behavior (refusing to wear the protective undergarment) because it was necessary to prevent the destruction of the furniture. To keep emphasis on the negative reinforcement rather than on the positive punishment (replacing the shower curtains), we did not discuss it when we put the shower curtains back in place, although we emphasized the appropriateness of his wearing the undergarment and articulated such during the removal of the shower curtains (the negative reinforcement.)
Conclusion
Operant conditioning is used daily basis in the media, advertising, childrearing, psychological treatment, and teaching. Used appropriately, operant conditioning plays a significant role in the complex undertaking of correcting severely maladaptive behavior, to the simple modification of slightly unfavorable behavior. Although Skinner thought all of humankind would benefit from behavioral modification begun in childhood and continued throughout the life span, most psychologists find a less dominant use of such modification and behavioral dictatorship appropriate. Operant conditioning continues to be used daily and has successfully withstood one of the most difficult assays - the test of time. The use of behavior's antecedent and its consequence to affect the generation of behavior will likely be an integral part of the psychological paradigm until science demonstrates a new understanding of these influences.
References
Cherry, K. (n.d.). Operant Conditioning - Introduction to Operant Conditioning. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Retrieved March 4, 2011, from http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htm
Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Skinner, B. F. (1965). Science and human behavior. New York, NY: Free Press.
The Theory of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the use of behavior's preceding circumstances or its consequences affects and produces behavior. It occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior, because of cognitive associations between, and expectations of consequences for a behavior (Cherry. n.d.). According to Olson and Hergenhahn (2009), Skinner believed "we are what we have been reinforced for being" (p. 76). In essence, he believed behavior is controlled by reinforcement (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). In operant conditioning the learner responds and produces a reinforcing stimulus (Cherry, n.d.). There is no stimulus preceding the behavior, the behavior is a consequence of the response. Skinner (1965) coined the term operant to describe active behavior that operates on the environment to provoke consequences. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit daily (Cherry, n.d.).
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a tool of operant conditioning and can be either positive or negative. Reinforcement is a consequence that strengthens or increases the probability of a response recurring. Positive reinforcement occurs when the outcome that follows behavior is favorable, and as such, the behavior is strengthened by the favorable outcome, as in the case of praise or a reward following behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs when an adverse event is removed following behavior, and the behavior is strengthened by removing that which is unfavorable (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Whereas positive reinforcement is the addition of a positive consequence following a specific behavior, negative reinforcement is the removal of a negative consequence following a specific behavior. Both positive and negative reinforcement are designed to strengthen or increase the likelihood of the same or similar behavior recurring (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Both types of reinforcement encourage a continuance of the behavior that precedes the consequence.
Effective Reinforcement
Generally, positive reinforcement seems to be the most effective type of conditioning. It has positive emotional effects and it clearly identifies correctness and appropriateness. Immediate feedback is usually more effective than consequences given later. B. F. Skinner argued against the use of punishment because of its lack of long-term effectiveness while others believe its emotional side effects, and the lack of information conveyed to the operant for correcting behavior make it a less effective conditioning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
The efficacy of the reinforcement may depend on the situation in which reinforcement is used. Negative reinforcement may be more effective when negative circumstances are already established, although positive reinforcement may be more effective in a situation in which there are no established negative consequences, and adding a favorable reward will lead to the continuance of the positive or acceptable behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). The effectiveness of reinforcement is lessened if there is no need or desire for the reinforcement. For example, offering a fully sated child more ice cream will not be as effective as offering the dessert to a child who has had none. Deprivation of the dessert makes it an effective reinforcement, and as such, for the deprived child, the effectiveness of the consequence increases.
Operant Conditioning Scenario
I had the opportunity to use operant conditioning to change the behavior of a stroke patient. His wife (a good friend) was extremely frustrated by his refusal to wear adult diapers to prevent him from urinating on the furniture and assuring he reached the bathroom without accident. First, I considered the situation to determine which type of conditioning would be most effective and equally appropriate for his generally intelligent adult character. He is an artistic man and highly aware of the esthetic quality of his proximal environment. I decided to purchase extremely unattractive shower curtains with which his wife and I covered all of the furniture, and explained to him the plastic coverings must stay in place to protect the furniture. If he decided to wear the protective undergarments, his wife would remove the shower curtains. He maintained his refusal of the undergarments for another two days, after which he decided he could not live with the shower curtain couture. This is an example of the negative reinforcement type of conditioning, although we first implemented what appeared to be a positive punishment when we placed the shower curtains on the furniture. However, we set the shower curtains in place so we could use a continued plan of negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement Schedule for Scenario
In my chosen scenario, for good behavior (wearing protective undergarments) the behavior was negatively reinforced by the removal of the shower curtains. We used a continuous reinforcement schedule and reinstated the use of the shower curtains for the undesired behavior (refusing to wear the protective undergarment) because it was necessary to prevent the destruction of the furniture. To keep emphasis on the negative reinforcement rather than on the positive punishment (replacing the shower curtains), we did not discuss it when we put the shower curtains back in place, although we emphasized the appropriateness of his wearing the undergarment and articulated such during the removal of the shower curtains (the negative reinforcement.)
Conclusion
Operant conditioning is used daily basis in the media, advertising, childrearing, psychological treatment, and teaching. Used appropriately, operant conditioning plays a significant role in the complex undertaking of correcting severely maladaptive behavior, to the simple modification of slightly unfavorable behavior. Although Skinner thought all of humankind would benefit from behavioral modification begun in childhood and continued throughout the life span, most psychologists find a less dominant use of such modification and behavioral dictatorship appropriate. Operant conditioning continues to be used daily and has successfully withstood one of the most difficult assays - the test of time. The use of behavior's antecedent and its consequence to affect the generation of behavior will likely be an integral part of the psychological paradigm until science demonstrates a new understanding of these influences.
References
Cherry, K. (n.d.). Operant Conditioning - Introduction to Operant Conditioning. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Retrieved March 4, 2011, from http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htm
Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Skinner, B. F. (1965). Science and human behavior. New York, NY: Free Press.
The Principle of Parsimony
I'd like to thank science for the Principle of Parsimony that states when two equally effective theories can explain the same phenomenon, but one explanation is simple and the other is complex, we must use the simpler explanation. Sounds like a principle that should be applied to many things in life.
Wednesday, March 2, 2011
But Really...
Skinner's an interesting character, although it seems slightly odd to me that he transferred most of his notions of trial-and-error behavior directly from rats to humans (but perhaps I am mistaken.) I had to read two books of his a very long time ago - Walden II and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Both were kind of quirky, and at the time, I wondered how serious he was on the idea of Walden II. Evidently, quite so. I also recall in the latter writing he pushed his idea that humankind was devoid of will and any drop of personal responsibility, internal motivation (other than what occurs through the process of conditioning) and inherent growth tendencies. While I see some realistic applications in behaviorism's theory, I continue to find it somewhat absurd to declare consciousness an invalid component of human behavior. I will admit, though, Skinner had some fairly clear and articulate views on our species and our ability to use the environment toward the comforts of technology, at the environment's expense.
As he wrote in Beyond Freedom and Dignity,
Every new source from which man has increased his power on the earth has been
used to diminish the prospects of his successors. All his progress has been made at
the expense of damage to his environment which he cannot repair…
(Skinner, 1972, p. 4).
Skinner, B. F. (1972). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York, NY: Bantam/Vintage Books.
As he wrote in Beyond Freedom and Dignity,
Every new source from which man has increased his power on the earth has been
used to diminish the prospects of his successors. All his progress has been made at
the expense of damage to his environment which he cannot repair…
(Skinner, 1972, p. 4).
Skinner, B. F. (1972). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York, NY: Bantam/Vintage Books.
Tuesday, March 1, 2011
Brief Thoughts on Behaviorism
I agree we are, in part, a product of our environment, although I tend to lean toward Freudian theory, humanism, and our biology, as what ultimately translates our environment into an impressionable experience. Starting with our cognitive abilities, these are only as good as, or a product of the quality of the machine (the mind.) I still believe, all things equal, we would have a similarly wide variety of people; the brilliant, the lazy, the fearful, and the odd and the eccentric, etc. For those of us who have children, within about a week of birth, a baby's temperament is evident - yet another prevailing condition and basic parameter in place throughout the life span through which experiences are filtered and translated into specific behaviors.
B. F. Skinner
Skinner developed the theoretical philosophy that became radical behaviorism. This concept rejects internal observations known as mentalistic events (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Skinner rejected terms such as drive, motivation, and purpose as aspects of behavior because they reflected personal mental experiences which he believed were unscientific and did not uphold the fundamental tenets of the science of psychology. He believed only the observable and measurable aspects of behavior were the only important aspects of psychological science. Although he built on the work of Watson and Pavlov, his work was considered revolutionary by his peers.
Equally, or possibly more important was Skinner's design of the operant conditioning chamber and his innovations in operant conditioning. He developed respondent and operant behaviors as well as two types of conditioning - Type S or respondent conditioning (classical conditioning) which stresses the significance of a stimulus causing a desired response and Type R (R for response) or operant conditioning which stresses response.
Skinner's theories, especially that of conditioning, continues to have a profound effect on psychology. Without knowing, many individuals use Skinnerian theory daily. Mothers all over the world give their children "time-outs" - a commonly used concept based on Skinner's theory. His theories on behavior modification are applied to contemporary problems such as phobias, eating disorders, and other problematic behaviors such as gambling. Skinner's influence covered childrearing, advertising, management, education, and self-help to a far greater extent than any of this twentieth century peers. His theories have withstood one of the greatest assays…the test of time.
Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Equally, or possibly more important was Skinner's design of the operant conditioning chamber and his innovations in operant conditioning. He developed respondent and operant behaviors as well as two types of conditioning - Type S or respondent conditioning (classical conditioning) which stresses the significance of a stimulus causing a desired response and Type R (R for response) or operant conditioning which stresses response.
Skinner's theories, especially that of conditioning, continues to have a profound effect on psychology. Without knowing, many individuals use Skinnerian theory daily. Mothers all over the world give their children "time-outs" - a commonly used concept based on Skinner's theory. His theories on behavior modification are applied to contemporary problems such as phobias, eating disorders, and other problematic behaviors such as gambling. Skinner's influence covered childrearing, advertising, management, education, and self-help to a far greater extent than any of this twentieth century peers. His theories have withstood one of the greatest assays…the test of time.
Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)