Examination of Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology's rich history spans from early Greek philosophers to Sigmund Freud, to modern psychology wherein lies a body of information drawn from science, philosophy, and other realms. Scientific exploration continues to evolve and transform clinical interventions as empirically based evidence supports the principles by which clinical psychologists treat human challenges. Although various distinctions exist between clinical psychologists and other psychological disciplines, all endure to promote a better quality of life from and for the human spirit (James & James, 1991).

The History of Clinical Psychology

Long before Lightner Witmer opened his clinic in 1896 and coined the term clinical psychology, history provided remarkable developments, each providing a steppingstone for new scientific and medical exploration. Greek history provided a rich background in the sciences when early Greek thinkers recognized the interconnectedness of the mind and body and the influence this relationship had on illness. Hippocrates, Plato, and Aristotle saw the "spirit or soul as being in charge of the body and that problems residing in the soul could result in physical illness" (Mora, 1985 as cited by Plante, 2011, p. 34). During the Middle Ages mental and physical ailments were considered a breach in character, and consequently healing disease and insanity became an issue of the spirit. Later the Renaissance brought a return of scientific exploration, rendering supernatural and religious viewpoints unscientific. Biomedical reductionism established illness was more accurately understood by scientific observation and experimentation rather than spiritual and metaphysical beliefs (Plante, 2011).

In the nineteenth century, Sigmund Freud and his colleagues began to have a more articulate understanding of the mind/body connection which "reawakened the notion that a more holistic view of health...was necessary for a fuller understanding of health, illness, and abnormal behavior" (Plante, 2011, p. 46). Freud theorized unconscious directives exert powerful influence on health and well-being, recalling the early Greek philosophy of the inextricable connection between the mind and body (Parsons, 1958). Freud's psychoanalytic thinking inspired the need to accommodate individual demands, which remains central to contemporary clinical psychology (Brown, 1940).

The birth of psychology came with the development of the first laboratory established by Wilhelm Wundt in Germany in 1879, and exerted into prominence with the 1890 publishing of William James' Principles of Psychology. Shortly thereafter, the newly founded APA elected G. Stanley Hall as its president. Although the new idea of applying psychological principles to human ailment was not initially well received by his professional colleagues, Witmer opened his clinic in 1896, and provided a venue for such application (Plante, 2011). Both World Wars played a significant role in the need for clinical psychologists, first in developing psychometric assessments, and later to provide services to more than 40,000 veterans hospitalized for psychiatric reasons. Conferences at Boulder, Colorado in 1947 and later at Vail Colorado in 1973, supported the development of new models of clinical training and guidelines for the education of clinical psychologists. In 1977, George Engel created the biopsychosocial model of treating mental illness, which suggested physical and psychological illnesses have biological, psychological, or social components that must be understood to provide effective treatment (Plante, 2011).

Clinical Psychology's Evolving Nature

Clinical psychology has an intrinsic mechanism that creates its ongoing evolving nature, defined by its association with modern medicine and its use of the scientific method (Kazdin, 2008). As the high-tech standards of modern medicine and neuroscience continue to unearth new discoveries about the human brain and its connection to thought and behavior, clinical psychology evolves its applications according to new empirical evidence. "Central to this evolution has been the titanic human struggle to understand abnormal behavior in the context of the mind and the body" (Plante, 2011, p. 31). Contemporary clinical psychology embodies the scientific advances of science while incorporating a deeper understanding of the human psyche, and even the spiritual nature of humanity, which is enveloped in the context of the evolving human condition. As research and practice unite to provide continued improvement to patient care, the relationship between the two is an essential component to its evolving nature (Kazdin, 2008). According to Kazdin (2008), one of the conundrums between clinical psychology and research is the clinician's best effort to "tailor treatment to meet the needs of individual patients" (p. 17) when such individuality has no defined protocol supported by empirical research.

The Role of Research and Statistics in Clinical Psychology

At the foundation of clinical psychology is research, which provides answers to questions by which the science continues to actively learn, and from where it derives its evolving nature. Statistics, as part of the scientific method allows researchers to determine whether information is significant and applicable to wider populations. Research is an essential component of clinical psychology because it augments therapeutic applications, improving the quality of life for many individuals and determines more effective ways to diagnose, treat, and understand human behavior (Plante, 2011). Using the scientific method and statistically significant evidence, clinical psychologists develop critical thinking skills, which benefit both research and clinical settings, and gain knowledge, which precedes the ability to design effective treatments. According to Plante (2011), "research is fundamental to both the science and practice of clinical psychology" (p. 106). Evidence substantiated by statistical significance allows clinicians to apply proven therapies and theories confidently, knowing their work is corroborated by the dependable and reputable methods of science (Plante, 2011).

Although there are different ways to design experiments and research, each method has unique advantages and disadvantages, but all seek to effectively and scientifically study important issues without bias. One of the most challenging goals in psychology is ethically studying issues that translate into practice in a clinical setting. Effective clinical psychologists maintain current knowledge of research in their work with patients, knowledge without which, relegates psychological practice to the common anecdote. The future will undoubtedly include higher technology and more refined answers pertaining to the connection between the mind and the body but will most likely continue to "integrate methods and knowledge from disciplines such as medicine, sociology, and epidemiology" (Plante, 2011, p. 106).

Clinical Psychology as it Differs from Other Disciplines

Differences between clinical psychology include specific training and focus, and may require different graduate degrees. School psychologists typically have master's degrees and work in elementary, secondary, or special education programs or maintain private practice, and their primary focus is working with students and their families (Plante, 2011). Social workers, like school psychologists typically have a master's degree and provide direct services to clients in clinical settings that may include schools, hospitals, clinics, and private practice. A common focus (but not necessarily the only one) for social workers is often following and managing individual case studies (Plante, 2011). Training for social work involves less emphasis on the biological components of illness and their influence on behavior as well as less attention paid to research.

Counseling psychology is similar to clinical psychology and many believe there is no need for the two separate branches (Kinderman, 2009). Psychiatrists are physicians with special training in psychiatric medicine usually during medical internship and have an extensive training in the biological basis of behavior and behavioral problems. Other mental health care professions such as psychiatric nursing, counseling specializations, and occupational therapy, offer clinical services similar to those offered by school psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers. Although clinical psychologists differ in some respects from other mental health-related professions, each discipline aims to "use the principles of psychology and [the] understanding of human behavior to promote health, happiness, and enhanced quality of life" (Plante, 2011, p. 27-28).

Conclusion

Many factors contributed to the genesis of clinical psychology as an independent discipline. Its evolution has been continual with a constant influx of new scientific information in biology, chemistry, physics, and technology. The contributions of Freud and psychoanalytic thinking inspired the notion of individuality in therapeutic design, which continues as a fundamental underpinning to clinical psychology. Although clinical psychology maintains differences with other psychological disciplines, the existence of the mental health-related professions embrace a primary aim to accommodate the psychological needs of humankind and provide a realistic and enduring ability to thrive, tailored empirically for the human spirit.

References

Brown, J. F. (1940). Freud's contribution to psychology. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 10(4), 866-868. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1940.tb05757.x

James, J., & James, M. (1991). Passion for life: psychology and the human spirit. New York, N.Y.: Dutton.

Kazdin, A. E. (2008). Evidence-based treatment and practice: new opportunities to bridge clinical research and practice, enhance the knowledge base, and improve patient care. American Psychologist, 63(3), 146-159. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.63.3.146

Kinderman, P. (2009). The future of counselling psychology: a view from outside. Counselling Psychology Review, 24(1), 16-21.

Parsons, T. (1958). Social Structure and the Development of Personality: Freud's Contribution to the Integration of Psychology and Sociology. Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 21, 321-340. doi: 10.1037/11302-002

Plante, T. G. (2011). Contemporary clinical psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Welwood, J. (2000). Toward a psychology of awakening: Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the path of personal and spiritual transformation. Boston: Shambhala.

Issues in Psychological Testing

What are at least two ethical issues associated with psychological testing? What impact do these issues have on the field of psychological testing?
One ethical issue is the use of informed consent. An essential component of psychological testing is obtaining voluntary consent to the assessment. The client must be informed about the purpose, expected duration, and any procedures used in the testing, and ascertain the client understands every aspect of giving consent (American Psychological Association, 2010). If the client is a child, or an individual of limited capacity, the parent or legal guardian must give consent for the client. The idea of informed consent is a continuing agreement, and clients may withdraw their consent at any time during the testing (Hogan, 2007). According to the American Medical Association (2011), informed consent is a process of communication between a patient and a health care professional that results in the patient's authorization or agreement to undergo testing. Furthermore, patients or clients have a right to full disclosure of test results, which must be accommodated in language reasonably understandable to them.

Maintaining confidentiality is another significant issue associated with psychological testing, and the psychologist is bound by ethical codes to refrain from referring to a patient's results outside of the appropriate context (Hogan, 2007). Furthermore, regarding confidentiality in record keeping, psychologists must maintain records efficiently, securely, and effectively so results are not prone to dissemination by other inappropriate parties. In most states, confidentiality is upheld by law. However, responsibility toward confidentiality is waived when harm to self or others is suspected (Hogan, 2007).

Both issues are of significant consequence to psychological testing. Without codes of, and specific adherence to ethical behavior, the science of psychology cannot be counted upon as a scientific discipline worthy of protecting and effectively supporting the myriad challenges of the human condition. Individuals and the whole of the human race depend upon ethical judgment, treatment, and applications formed by scientific exploration rather than the common anecdote. Because the rights of individuals should be a primary concern in any psychological discipline, equally consequential is maintaining confidentiality. Without protecting these fundamental rights, the science cannot present itself as adequately and fairly preserving and supporting the private attempt of every individual toward achieving and retaining a more positive quality of life.

2. What are at least two legal issues associated with psychological testing? How do these issues affect the field of psychological testing?
One major issue that continues to cause problems with psychological testing is discrimination and the idea that some testing infringes upon the rights of individuals of a particular race or ethnicity (Hogan, 2007). The EEOC guidelines were "intended to establish a uniform Federal position in the area of prohibiting discrimination in employment on grounds of race, religion, sex or national origin" (29 C.F.R. § 1607.18 as cited by Hogan, 2007, p. 606). By law, psychologists cannot apply tests or any other type of selection procedure that may result in unfair discrimination or adversely impacts a favorable ratio of the sexes, races, or ethnic groups. Psychologists may be called upon to support the use of specific testing, and demonstrate the test's validity and job relevance, and whether it is necessary to address the individual's capability for functioning as it supports the operation of the business (Hogan, 2007).

Another issue of legality concerns making appropriate accommodations for Americans with disabilities. According to the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, necessary accommodations must be made for any person who cannot conform to normal test-taking protocols (Hogan, 2007). Examples of such accommodations include effective ways to mitigate difficulties of the hearing impaired, or providing tests in large print editions for individuals with sight impairment. Making appropriate accommodations for disabilities is essential, although not to the extent of giving the disabled individual an unfair advantage over the other nondisabled applicants (Hogan, 2007). Ongoing efforts continue to provide a better understanding of how accommodations are best navigated and executed for the benefit of disabled and nondisabled Americans.

Both issues present difficult challenges to psychological testing. Leveling the playing field must account for fairness for both sides of the discrimination issues. Certainly it is neither fair nor ethical to treat one group less fairly than another. Laws regarding these issues are implemented for the protection of all citizens, and psychologists are mandated by law and expectedly their personal ethics, to continue to contribute higher order thinking to mitigate remaining issues of discrimination. The field of psychology and that of psychological testing must be held accountable for the highest level of ethics and legal fairness.

3. Which court case do you feel has had the largest impact on the field of psychological testing? Why?
One case that brought substantial change to psychological testing and gave influence to the recently formed Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the Griggs v Duke Power case in 1971 (Hogan, 2007). Even though this case was not unusual, it happened during a time when initial progress was being made in this country for African Americans. Although the Civil Rights Act had been enacted seven years prior, there was continued discrimination against the African American population. (Note: African Americans were still referred to as Negroes.) Also influential was this case transpired in the southeastern part of the United States where slavery was a significant problem with long-term ramifications extending further into contemporary conditions than experienced in other parts of the country. This case set a precedent for African Americans, women, and other minorities, for fairness in hiring, and established that the requirements of the job must reasonably associate with job performance (Hogan, 2007). This case designated legal standards, requiring the validation of tests, or in other words, must show "a relationship between the selection device and job performance" (Hogan, 2007, p. 610). In sum, the court ruled the requirements of the company did not pertain to performance ability, and even though unintentionally, the company had discriminated against African American employees (Tobler, 2005). Discrimination even as it continues in the United States must be addressed through legal means, if necessary. Discrimination negates the fundamental and inalienable rights and privileges of all people and the Constitution of the United States. It is essential for anyone in the psychological disciplines to uphold and support the continual fight against any form of discrimination.

References

American Medical Association. (2011). Informed consent. American Medical Association. Retrieved July 24, 2011, from http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/physician- resources/legal-topics/patient-physician-relationship-topics/informed-consent.page

American Psychological Association. (2010). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. American Psychological Association (APA). Retrieved July 24, 2011, from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: a practical introduction (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.

Tobler, C. (2005). Indirect discrimination: a case study into the development of the legal concept of indirect discrimination under EC law. Antwerpen: Intersentia.

Psychological Measure: The BDI

The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the creation of Aaron T. Beck, is one of the most widely used tests for assessing depression. The BDI is a reliable multiple-choice self-report inventory, for the purpose of assessing the presence and severity of depression (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1061). The following articles address the use of the BDI in a variety of circumstances including alcohol dependency and with young girls between the ages of nine and 13. In both populations the BDI-II and the BDI-Y provided both valid and reliable results. The test is easy to use and can be administered by individuals with a minimal amount of training. Accounting for the complex nature of co-morbidities in any substance dependency, and for children between the ages of nine and 13, the BDI-II and the BDI-Y are assessments sufficient for the initial determination of depression and its severity for the two distinct populations measured.

Articles Discussing the Beck Depression Inventory

Using the BDI in Alcohol-dependent Populations

McPherson and Martin (2009) studied the use of the BDI in an alcohol-dependent population and found 80% of people with alcohol dependency experience clinical symptoms of depression. There is often confusion on how to treat someone who is depressed and dependent on alcohol, although the recommended treatment is a combination of pharmacology and psychotherapy as well as educating the individuals and their families (McPherson & Martin, 2009). The BDI was first created to assist in evaluating the progress of treatment, but later used to determine whether individuals were depressed or not depressed. McPherson and Martin (2009) claim “these characteristics and the recurring factors in a range of studies highlighted led to a conclusion that the BDI is a rational choice as a screening instrument for depression in an alcohol-dependent population” (p. 28).

Considering the reliability and validity of using the BDI, McPherson and Martin (2009) claim “an initial literature search carried out for this study shows research into its use with an alcohol-dependent population is scarce” (p. 20). Test-retest reliability shows stability of a test over time and the study by McPherson and Martin (2009) demonstrated reliability. Using internal consistency to confirm test items are consistent with each other, the internal correlation retained its consistency in an alcohol-dependent population. In sum, the BDI is a reliable and valid measure of depression in this population.

Using the BDI in a Sample of Girls

In 2007, the Beck’s Depression Inventory for Youth (BDI-Y) was used in a study involving girls ages nine to13. The ethnic background of the girls varied with roughly five different ethnicities included (Stapleton et al., 2007). The BDI-Y measured different domains of anxiety, depression, and self-concept. The depression inventory asks for responses about negative self perspective, generally negative world views, lack of hope, and average emotional and other symptoms of depression (Stapleton et al., 2007). The BDI includes 20 questions in the inventory and the questionnaire is formulated for the reading level of second graders. The questions have a negative connotation. The girls in the study answered each question with responses of never, sometimes, often, or always, depending on how closely the question related to them. Upon completion, tests were scored determining the presence and severity of depression.

The results of the study demonstrated the effectiveness of the BDI-Y. "Predictive validity of the BDI-Y was supported, as the mean score of girls eventually diagnosed with depression was higher than that of girls who did not receive a diagnosis of depression" (Stapleton et al., 2007, p. 232). Furthermore, it demonstrated the BDI-Y as both reliable and valid in a variety of ethnic backgrounds, as the results did not vary because of this variable. Reliability was slightly off in regard to age because the results of the BDI-Y varied marginally when compared the Children’s Depression Inventory, only for the nine-year-old girls, however. Because of this, further research is recommended to test the effectiveness of the BDI-Y for girls ages seven to eight. This test is designed for youth ages seven through 18. Another consideration is to include both positive and negative words on the test to determine if this would produce different responses (Stapleton et al., 2007). The Children's Depression Inventory makes use of both types of wording, which varies from the BDI.

Uses of Beck Depression Inventory

The BDI-II is designed for adults and adolescents over the age of 13. Beck designed the inventory as a screening tool, although it is used by many health care professionals to ascertain a more immediate diagnosis (Sharp & Lipsky, 2001). According to McPherson and Martin (2010), the BDI-II is both reliable and valid for use in detecting depression and changes in depression in a variety of populations, and furthermore, an effective screening tool for alcohol-dependent populations (McPherson & Martin, 2010). Research (Luty & O'Gara, 2006) suggests further study into the areas of addiction and dependency and the use of the BDI-II. Other research (Buckley, Parker & Heggie, 2001) has determined the BDI-II is valid in addiction research and research concerning alcohol-dependent individuals. McPherson and Martin (2010) claim depression can be "expressed as either a primary or secondary component" (p. 22) and central to primary depression are mood issues, although in secondary depression other problems such as alcohol dependence are of issue, and central to the depression. Understanding the issues associated with depression, and the multiple causalities contributing to this disorder, help to explain why the BDI-II can effectively be used in populations with depression even with a variety of causalities. The BDI-Y is a reliable and valid measure for young girls ages nine to 13 with more research suggested for the its application to seven and eight-year-olds (Stapleton, Sander, & Stark, 2007). As measured against the Children's Depression Inventory, the BDI is valid and reliable for the ages and ethnic backgrounds accounted for in the research.

Qualifications for Administration and Interpretation

The goal of Beck’s cognitive therapy is to help people develop realistic appraisals of the situations they encounter (Beck, 1991). The therapist acts as trainer and co-investigator, providing data to be examined, and guidance in understanding how cognition influences behavior (Beck & Weishaar, 1989). The BDI-II and the BDI-Y can be self-administered, although the scoring and measurements may not be as easy to interpret for self-administration. In a clinical setting the test can be administered and scored by a paraprofessional, although the interpretation of the final scores requires a professional with clinical training and experience (Smith & Erford, 2001). The scoring for both BDI assessments is dependent on those who have been diagnosed with depression and scores vary by population.

The interpretive ranges of the test are 0 to 13: minimal depression, 14 to 19: mild depression, 20 to 28: moderate depression, and 29 to 63: severe depression (Polgar, 2011). The BDI has been tested over time for its validity as it was constructed by clinicians and experts on depression among psychiatric patients. The BDI has been tested for reliability and has followed all testing standards for psychological testing since 1985. Internal consistency has been demonstrated in more than 25 studies in varied populations. The BDI has been shown to be valid and reliable and resulting in corresponding ratings of depression in more than 90% of cases (Polgar, 2011). The BDI would be appropriate to use for individuals already experiencing symptoms of depression and is best used in cases in which a patient is already undergoing counseling or treatment.

Populations for Valid and Invalid Use

The test served as a self-report assessment accurately demonstrating the severity of depression symptoms in each group. According to McPherson and Martin (2010), the test shows 80% of the alcohol-dependent population have co-morbidities including depression. The BDI-II is useable for alcohol-dependent populations with the caveat that more research on addictive and substance-dependent populations is necessary. Regarding the BDI-Y on the girl's group, the test is reliable and valid except for the group of seven to eight-year-old girls. Furthermore, the test was reliable and valid across the five ethnic groups represented in the study (Stapleton, Sander, & Stark, 2007). More research is necessary for the younger age group (ages seven to eight) to further examine reliability and validity. The BDI-II is a valid and reliable psychometric evaluation for measuring the presence and severity of depression and is designed for individuals over the age of 13. The BDI-Y is preferable for children under the age of 13, and as advised by Stapleton, Sander, & Stark (2007), caution should be used in children under the age of nine. Although more research is suggested for populations with substance dependency, the BDI-II is an accurate and reliable measure of depression's severity and its changes over time in a clinical setting.

According to Hersen (2004), there have not been adequate norms for diverse ethnic groups. The majority of psychometric studies on the BDI-II have used Caucasians. Although some population-specific norms have been created for the BDI, more appropriate norms for the variety of ethnic groups are needed (Hersen, 2004). Regarding the BDI-Y, Hersen (2004) claims there is insufficient published data on this inventory other than the reports contained in the test manual.

Conclusion

The BDI-II "has had an enduring legacy in psychiatry as a measure for depression" (McPherson & Martin, 2010, p. 27) and is effective for measuring depression and its changes over time (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961). Depression has a variety of co-morbidities, and the use of the BDI-II depends on contemporary empirical evidence supporting its use in a variety of populations. Research supports using the BDI in alcohol-dependent and other addictive groups (Buckley, Parker, & Heggie, 2001; McPherson & Martin, 2010; Sharp & Lipsky, 2001) and for young girls between the ages of nine and 13 from various ethnic backgrounds (Subramaniam, Harrell, & Huntley, 2009).


References

Beck, A.T., (1991). Cognitive therapy. American Psychologist, 46, 368-375

Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4(6), 561-571.

Beck, A.T. & Weishaar, M. (1989). Cognitive Therapy. Comprehensive Handbook of Cognitive Therapy. New York: Plenum

Buckley T.C., Parker J.D. & Heggie J. (2001) A psychometric evaluation of the BDI-II in treatment-seeking substance abusers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 20, 197– 204.

Hersen, M. (2004). Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Luty, J., & O'Gara, C. (2006). Validation of the 13-Item Beck Depression Inventory in alcohol- dependent people. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 10(1), 45-51. doi: 10.1080/13651500500410117

McPherson, A. A., & Martin, C. R. (2010). A narrative review of the Beck Depression Inventory and implications for its use in an alcohol-dependent population. Journal of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing, 17(1), 19-30. Doi:10.1111/j.1365-2850.2009.01469.x

Polgar, M. (2011). Beck Depression Inventory. In Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. Retrieved July 30, 2011, from http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Beck-Depression-Inventory.html

Sharp, L. K., & Lipsky, M. S. (2001). Screening for depression across the lifespan: a review of measures for use in primary care settings. American Family Physician, 66(6), 1001-1008.

Smith, C., & Erford, B. T. (2001). Test review: Beck depression inventory - II. Association for Assessment in Counseling. Retrieved July 30, 2011, from http://aac.ncat.edu/newsnotes/y98fall.html

Stapleton, L. M., Sander, J. B., & Stark, K. D. (2007). Psychometric properties of the Beck
depression inventory for youth in a sample of girls. Psychological Assessment, 19(2), 230-235. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.19.2.230

Subramaniam, G., Harrell, P., Huntley, E., & Tracy, M. (2009). Beck depression inventory for
depression screening in substance-abusing adolescents. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 37(1), 25-31. doi: 10.1016/j.jsat.2008.09.008

Survey for Students (click to enlarge)

Attitude Survey

Attitude surveys provide valuable information on perception of experience or ideas (Seymour, 2011). They assist in gathering information, not only based on fact, but also on the experiences, perceptions, and expectations of the respondents. To assist University of Phoenix in its continued development toward academic excellence, the attached survey has been created.

Purpose of Survey

The purpose of this self-administered ranking scale survey is to determine the perception and level of satisfaction of graduating students of the University of Phoenix online. The survey assesses levels of satisfaction in five constructs of the online educational experience. It assesses general academic satisfaction, facilitator responsiveness, curriculum challenge, weekly assessments experience, and teamwork experience. This survey was based on the RATER Model - Service Quality Dimensions. RATER is a service quality model and an acronym for reliability, assurance, tangibles, empathy, and responsiveness (Czaplewski, Olson, & Slater, 2001). It is a simple and functional model for qualitatively assessing customers' experience with a service, and designed to assist organizations in lessening the disparity between perceived service and service expectations (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988).

Assessing the attitudes and perceptions of customers is essential to maintaining good business practices, especially when providing services. "Customer service is the overall activity of identifying and satisfying customer needs" (Times 100, 2011, para. 1). The graduating students of the University of Phoenix are the university's customers. By determining and recognizing students' level of satisfaction, the university acknowledges its responsibility to continue to serve its customers and improve its educational service. As in any profitable organization, it is essential to acknowledge successes as well as shortcomings, and understanding and preventing negative student perceptions and attitudes is essential for the ongoing reputation of the online curriculum of University of Phoenix. Equally important is understanding where gaps exist between students' academic expectations and the actual service they receive (Seymour, 2011).

Preliminary Design Issues

The attached survey targets recent graduates of the University of Phoenix online. It will be self-administered online during the last week of the final class, before graduation. The survey will yield five scores, one for each of the five constructs assessed. Furthermore, it will yield one overall general satisfaction score, and individual score sets on the five cognitive, five emotional, and five behavioral assessments. The assessment will be short in length - 15 questions consisting of three questions for each of the five constructs, and should take less than ten minutes to complete. Although it may sacrifice some reliability because of its length, it should produce more responses (Hogan, 2008). The survey will be a broad measure of overall satisfaction with the online educational experience at the University of Phoenix, which will determine potential areas of concern and provide direction for further study.

One issue of consequence when initially contemplating design was determining how best to elicit accurate and thoughtful replies. To allow the most insight into responses, five various points of response were selected (Seevers, Graham, & Conklin, 2007). The format is selected-response using a Likert scale with five degrees of agree/disagree with each degree associated with a number (strongly disagree/-2, disagree/-1, neither agree nor disagree/0, agree/+1, strongly agree/+2.) Lower scores in each section represent less satisfaction and higher scores represent more satisfaction.

The design aspects that presented the most difficulty was creating statements to reflect specifically cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses. Reflecting these specific responses was important to understand not only how students thought about their experience but also how they felt about their involvement, and what they did, or would eventually do according to their experience (Hogan, 2007). Furthermore, in creating this assessment, a norm must be established to enable the determination of average responses. The assessment needs to be applied to a random group of students, and to a variety of ethnic groups to determine its reliability in a variety of populations. Some variables in populations may include higher satisfaction scores in average students; however, less satisfaction may be correlated with below average and above average students. Other variables may surface within specific ethnic groups. Because the University of Phoenix online is a diverse organization, discovering the ethnic variables is essential. Furthermore, by applying this questionnaire to groups according to grade point averages, and various ethnic groups, a determination can be made for reliable norms. For example, and to promote further study, if Caucasian populations have normally lower satisfaction scores than African Americans, or Asian Americans, there may be reason for further study.

Instructions for Administering, Scoring, and Interpreting the Survey

This survey will be self-administered online so training administration staff is not necessary. Scoring the surveys can be accomplished with minimal instruction and a basic understanding of addition for tabulating scores. Each construct has three questions with responses valued between -2 and +2. The sum of the three scores from each section will be the final overall evaluation for the particular construct yielding a score between -6 and +6. Score reports will be simple handwritten records and will report the students' assessment of the five specific assessment components. Lower scores for a section represent a lower overall level of satisfaction with the particular construct measured, higher score represent a higher level of satisfaction.

Within each section there are three assessments in order of these components: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral. Further information can be derived by reviewing the five cognitive assessments (numbers 1, 4, 7, 10, and 13,) the emotional assessments (numbers 2, 5, 8, 11, and 14,) or the behavioral assessments (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15). To obtain one score for the general level of satisfaction with the education received at the University of Phoenix online, all five section scores (-6 to +6) will be averaged for an overall score (between -6 to +6). For interpretive purposes for individual sections and the single overall average score the meaning of each score or group of scores is as follows:

· -6 to -4 Strongly Dissatisfied

· -3 to -1 Dissatisfied

· 0 Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied

· +1 to +3 Satisfied with some Reservations

· +4 to +6 Highly Satisfied

Conclusion

The attached survey is designed to assess the satisfaction of the online students of University of Phoenix. It measures satisfaction within five constructs: general educational, facilitator responsiveness, curriculum challenge, weekly assessment experience, and teamwork experience. The survey is constructed to obtain cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses from graduating students. This assessment is a means to encourage further study into the satisfaction of student/customers in the business of education at University of Phoenix.

References

Czaplewski, A. J., Olson, E. M., & Slater, S. F. (2001). Applying the RATER model for service success. Marketing Management, 11(1), 14-17.

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: a practical introduction (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ:

John Wiley & Sons.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L.L. (1988), A Multiple-Item Scale for Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality, Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 12-40.

Seevers, B., Graham, D., & Conklin, N. (2007). Education through cooperative extension. Columbus, OH: Curriculum Materials Service.

Seymour, E. (2011). CATs: Attitude Surveys. CL-1: Field-tested Learning Assessment Guide. Retrieved August 02, 2011, from http://www.flaguide.org/cat/attitude/attitude1.php

Times 100. (2011). The importance of customer service. Business Studies Case Studies. Retrieved August 02, 2011, from http://www.thetimes100.co.uk/theory/theory--the- importance-customer-service--414.php